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Outline r  iimature-study  and 


Outlines  in  Nature  Study  and  History 


A    TEXT-BOOK 


FOR   PUPILS  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


BY 


ANNIE   GILBERT   ENGELL 

SUPERVISING    PRINCIPAL    OF    THE    GEORGE    B.    MCCLE1.LAN    COMBINED    PRIMARY'    SCHOOL,    FH11  ADELPHlA 


GO  ;TS  OF 

rT*00MPASI 

-  v 


SILVER,   BURDETT  AND   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    BOSTON    CHICAGO 


Copyright,  iqoc, 
b*Y  SILVER,  BURDETT  AND  COMPANY 


CONTENTS. 


Note  to  Teachers   . 
Illustrative  Lessons 


faull 

V 

.  *  • 

Vlll 


Outlines  in  Nature  Study. 


PAGE 


Plants. 

1 
4 

5 

6 

9 

Trees 

11 
18 

Parts  of  Plants  used  for  Food    . 

How   Plants    are    prepared    for 

Food 

15 
17 

V 


II.  The  Human  Body. 

f  General  Plan  of  the  Human  Body  20 
t  How  to  take  Care  of  the  Human 

Body 21 

!     Food  —  Wholesome    and   Un- 
wholesome       22 

Cleanliness  and  Bathing    ...  23 
Clothing    in    Hot    and    Cold 

Weather 24 

The  Teeth 25 

The  Lungs  and  Breathing      .     .  2G 
Importance   of   Breathing  Pure 

Air 28 

Ventilation  of  Rooms    ....  29 

The  Bony  Structure  .....  30 

The  Head 81 


III. 


in 


PAGE 

Bones  of  the  Trunk,  —  the  Spin.'  32 

The  Collar-bone 33 

The  Shoulder-blades      ....  33 

The  Ribs 34 

Bones  of  the  Arm  and  Hand  .     .  ?A 

Bones  of  the  Leg  and  Foot    .     .  35 

The  Joints 36 

The  Muscles 37 

The  Senses 38 

Structure  of  the  Eye      ....  41 

Care  of  the  Eyes 42 

Structure  of  the  Ear      ....  4:; 

Care  of  the  Ear 44 

Animals. 

The  Domestic  Animals  and  their 

Uses 4") 

The  Horse 46 

The  Cow 47 

The  Sheep 49 

The  Dog       50 

The  Cat 51 

Birds  that  are  Domesl  ic  Animals  ^2 

Movements  of  Domestic  Animals  ")4 

The  Skeletons  ..f  Animals.     .     .  57 
Comparison    of    the    Bodies   of 

Animals 61 

Means  of  Defense 66 


19 


- 


IV 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Color  as  a  Protection    ....  68 

IIow  Different  Animals  Breathe  69 

Beasts 72 

Birds 76 

Reptiles 82 

Fish 85 

Shellfish 89 

Insects 94 

IV.  Natural  Science. 

The  Sun  .     .     . 104 

The  Moon 106 


PAGE 

Stars 108 

Stars    on    October    15    at    Nine 

O'clock     ....  ...  112 

Stars  on  February  15  at  Seven 

O'clock 114 

Stars  on  April  15  at  Eight  O'clock  116 

Stars  on  July  15  at  Nine  O'clock  118 

The  Air .     .  120 

Sound 124 

Water 125 

Magnetic  Attraction       ....  129 


Outlines  in  History. 


PAGE 

Story  of  Columbus 131 

The  Indians 132 

•Story  of  Pocahontas 134 

The  Pilgrims 135 

Thanksgiving  Day 136 

Story  of  William  Penn 137 

Story  of  Independence  Day       .     .     .   138 
The  Pennsylvania  State  House      .     .  139 

Story  of  Washington 141 

The  Flag 142 

Lydia  Darragh 143 

Valley  Forge 144 

Lafayette 145 

Benjamin  Franklin 146 


PAGE 

Stephen  Girard 148 

Abraham  Lincoln 149 

Memorial  Day 151 

Travel  by  Land  and  Water  .     .     .     .152 
Means  of  Communication     ....  153 
Places  of  Historical  Interest  in  Phila- 
delphia      155 

America 156 

Hail,  Columbia 157 

The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  $158 

The  Star  Spangled  Banner  ....  160 

Columbia,  the  Gem  of  the  Ocean      .  161 

Hurrah  for  the  Flag 162 

The  Bell  of  Liberty 163 


NOTE  TO  TEACHERS. 

The  most  advanced  thought  on  systematic  education  considers  the  harmoni- 
ous development  of  all  of  the  intellectual  faculties,  together  with  the  relative 
value  and  interdependence  of  the  three  aspects  of  mental  operations,  —  intel- 
lect, feeling,  and  will.  Formerly,  when  the  aim  of  education  was  conceived 
to  be  the  acquisition  of  a  fixed  number  of  facts  in  certain  branches  rather 
than  the  development  of  mental  power,  memory  was  the  only  faculty 
deemed  worthy  of   receiving  special  training. 

The  preeminent  value  and  importance  of  memory  cannot  be  denied,  but  it 
can  be  properly  strengthened  and  developed  only  by  a  judicious  training  of 
the  other  faculties.  "  Seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  intelligence,  and  all  knowl- 
edge may  be  added  unto  you." 

Growth  of  intelligence  requires  and  presupposes  a  world  of  sights  and 
sounds  by  means  of  which  mental  activity  may  be  stimulated.  According  to 
Herbert  Spencer,  "No  act  of  cognition  can  be  absolutely  free  from  emotion." 
Therefore,  Xature  Study  is  a  means  particularly  adapted  t<>  the  attainment  of 
intellectual  power.  It  should  be  presented  so  as  to  arouse  curiosity,  enga 
attention,  direct  observation,  and  inspire  a  desire  to  investigate  causa] 
conditions. 

In  this  way  the  powers  of  comparison,  judgment,  and  reasoning  will  be 
supplied  with  material  calculated  to  stimulate  their  activity,  and  the  store- 
house of.memory  will  become  filled  through  the  child's  own  efforts.  Lack  of 
interest  in  this  branch  of  study  is  owing  principally  to  its  being  made  sym- 
bolic rather  than  natural. 

All  information  cannot  be  acquired  by  personal  investigation  for  obvious 
reasons.  Most  knowledge  obtained  in  later  vears  must  of  necessity  be  svm- 
bolic.  For  this  reason,  it  is  well,  in  connection  with  so  concrete  a  subject  as 
Nature  Study,  to  inspire  the  intensest  love  of  research,  and  also  i<>  show  the 
child  the  proper  use  of  text-books,  and  to  train  him  in  the  best  methods  of 
study. 


VI  NOTE   TO    TEACHERS. 

After  a  subject  has  been  thoroughly  investigated  and  comprehended,  to 
make  it  valuable  to  the  student  it  must  be  memorized  for  future  use.  Train 
the  children,  therefore,  to  study  by  heart  and  not  by  rote.  They  will  not 
memorize  the  mere  words  of  a  book  unless  permitted  or  obliged  to  do  so  by 
an  inefficient  teacher.  The  printed  sentences  of  a  text-book  or  the  script  of 
dictated  notes  should  not,  under  any  conditions,  precede  or  supersede  the 
thorough  observation  and  investigation  of  the  real  thins;.  The  text-book 
should  be  used  only  for  reference  and  review. 

"When  a  child  has  been  thus  trained  to  the  proper  use  of  a  text-book,  the 
burden  of  study  in  more  advanced  grades  will  be  decreased  and  the  pupil  will 
"know  that  he  knows,"  or  will  be  equally  positive  when  he  "knows  that  he 
does  not  know"  a  subject.  Habits  of  intelligent  study  are  thus  formed  which 
will  be  of  infinite  value  to  him  whether  his  attendance  at  school  be  for  few 
or  many  years. 

The  primal  object  of  language  work  in  elementary  schools  is  to  develop  in 
the  child  the  power  to  express  his  thoughts  in  well-constructed  sentences. 
The  difficulty  which  confronts  many  teachers  is  that  the  child  has  no  thoughts 
to  express.  Clear  and  well-defined  thought  will  assist  greatly  the  power  of 
expression.  The  need  of  a  book  to  fill  these  requirements  has  been  recognized 
by  many.  By  placing  such  a  book  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  the  boundaries 
of  the  schoolroom  will  be  widened,  and  home  and  school  life  will  more  nearly 
become  a  unity. 

The  presentation  of  questions  was  designed  to  stimulate  curiosity  in  the 
child  and  indicate  a  line  of  observation  and  investigation  outside  of  school 
hours.  It  was  further  intended  to  create  discussion  and  to  lead  pupils  to  talk 
fluently  as  well  as  to  think  logically.  The  real  knowledge  which 'the  child 
gains  through  his  own  effort  and  experience  he  will  only  too  gladly  dissemi- 
nate among  his  companions,  and  he  will  come  to  the  class  rilled  with  enthusiasm 
for  the  subject,  —  the  enthusiasm  of  discovery.  In  this  way  some  additional 
time  will  be  gained  for  the  teacher  in  the  well-filled  school  day. 

-Ml  of  the  questions  are  answered  somewhere  in  the  book,  although  it  may 
not  be  in  the  summary  immediately  following.  Were  this  the  case,  there 
would  be  a  possibility  of  the  work's  deteriorating  into  the  mechanical  answer- 
ing of  questions,  and  the  object  of  the  book  would  be  defeated. 

The  questions  on  a  subject  may  be  assigned  to  the  class  for  consideration. 


JSTOTE   TO    TEACHERS.  VI] 

When  the  conversational  lesson  takes  place,  it  should  be  accompanied  by  as 
much  concrete  material  as  possible,  and  also  by  drawings  illustrating  various 
parts  of  the  lesson.  Because  the  child's  own  work  will  be  more  valuable  to 
him,  it  was  deemed  advisable  in  a  book  of  this  character  to  omit  all  illustra- 
tions. These  drawings  should  be  made  by  each  child  in  a  book  devoted  to  the 
purpose  and  retained  for  future  reference.  A  collection  of  as  many  specimens 
as  possible  should  also  be  made. 

Following:  all  this  work  of  investigation  and  discussion  should  come  the 
written  account  of  the  subjec*  by  each  pupil.  Power  to  expres  i  thought  will 
develop  rapidly  in  this  way. 

The  summary  can  be  used  as  a  reading  lesson  for  general  review  —  a  ready 
reference  by  which  the  memory  can  be  refreshed  from  time  to  time.  The 
drudgery  of  note-taking,  with  its  deleterious  effects  on  both  spelling  and 
writing,  will  be  avoided. 

By  this  method  Nature  Study  and  language  work  can  be  combined  a* 
preparation  for  more  formal  study.     Power  to  think  incisively  and  accurately 
will  be  developed,  as  well  as  power  to  express  resultant  conclusions  in  well- 
arranged  sentences,  and  thus  will  be  accomplished  the  end  and  aim  of  Ian- 
guage  work  in  elementary  schools. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS. 

Before  starting  the  lessons  in  Nature  Study,  the  teacher  should  familiarize 
herself  with  the  subject  matter  of  every  summary.  Every  question  contained 
in  the  hook  is  answered  in  some  one  of  the  summaries  on  the  subject. 

For  each  lesson  there  should  be  concrete  material  in  the  schoolroom.  When 
the  real  objects  cannot  be  secured,  pictures  may  be  substituted.  Pupils  and 
teachers  must  cooperate  in  obtaining  this  material. 

The  lessons  are  so  arranged  as  to  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  there  is  much 
to  learn  about  each  subject.  For  this  reason  the  questions  precede  the  sub- 
ject matter.  In  order  that  the  teacher  may  know  how  to  use  these  lessons 
most  profitably  the  following  work  on  plant  study  has  been  outlined :  — 


FIRST   DAY'S   LESSON. 

Teacher: — "To-morrow  we  will  commence  to  study  about  plants.  You 
have  all  seen  plants  growing.  Sometimes  we  have  them  growing  in  the 
schoolroom.  Many  of  you  have  them  at  home.  They  can  also  be  seen  in 
the  various  public  parks.  You  must  all  examine  some  and  find  out  all  that 
you  can  about  them.  When  we  come  to  school  to-morrow  we  will  tell  each 
other  all  that  we  have  learned. 

"On  page  1  in  your  book  on  Nature  Study  and  History  you  will  find  ques- 
tion:, about  plants.  Read  these  questions  and  find  the  answers  to  as  many  of 
them  as  you  can.  Any  one  who  wishes  to  do  so  may  bring  a  plant  or  a  part 
of  a-  plant  to  school." 

SECOND   DAY'S   LESSON. 

Teacher: — "How  many  children  read  the  questions' about  plants?  How 
many  children  can  tell  us  something  that  they  learned  froni  examining  some 
plants  ?  " 

viii 


ILLUSTRATIVE    LESSONS.  ix 

The  children  are  then  to  be  given  an  opportunity  to  talk,  —  each  child 
telling  to  the  class  all  that  he  has  found  out  on  the  subject 

In  this  first  talk  on  plants,  the  teacher  may  consider  all  of  the  questions  or 
as  many  as  seem  best  fitted  to  the  needs  of  the  class,  directing  the  attention 
of  the  pupils  to  the  others,  and  telling  them  that  this  knowledge  they  will 
learn  in  later  lessons.  In  each  lesson  the  teacher  may  supply  any  information 
which  the  pupils  cannot  discover  for  themselves.  This  talk  is  simply  an  in- 
troduction to  the  study  of  plants.  The  class  is  now  ready  for  the  lesson  on 
the  development  of  the  plant  from  the  seed. 


THIRD   DAY'S   LESSON. 

The  teacher  must  provide  some  dried  peas,  beans  or  corn  for  the  use  of 
the  pupils  during  this  lesson.     These  can  be  purchased  at  any  Beed  store. 

The  dried  seeds  are  to  be  distributed  among  the  pupils.  Each  child  will 
examine  and  make  a  drawing  of  the  seed  on  his  own  desk.  The  teacher  ma\ 
then  collect  the  seeds  and  place  them  in  two  tumblers,  half  the  quantity  in 
each, 

Teacher: — "You  all  see  that  I  have  placed  half  of  the  seeds  in  each  of 
these  tumblers.  The  seeds  in  one  glass  are  to  remain  dry.  We  will  cover 
the  seeds  in  the  other  glass  with  water.  To-morrow  we  will  look  at  them 
again  and  see  whether  the  seeds  in  the  two  tumblers  look  just  as  they  do  now." 


FOURTH   DAY'S   LESSON. 

The  teacher  will  have  the  pupils  examine  and  compare  the  seeds  in  the  two 
tumblers,  and  then  have  the  pupils  note  the  difference  and  state  the  effect  of 
the  absorption  of  water. 

Each  pupil  will  now  receive  a  soaked  seed,  and  make  a  drawing  of  it  beside 
the  drawing  of  the  dried  seed  previously  made. 

The  soaked  seeds  may  now  be  planted  by  the  pupils.  Place  some  in  moist 
sawdust,  some  in  raw  cotton  (in  a  tumbler  of  water),  and  some  in  moisl  BOiL 

Enough  seeds  should  be  planted  to  give  one  to  each  pupil  on  the  following 
day. 


ILLUSTRATIVE    LESSONS. 


FIFTH  DAY'S   LESSON. 


Remove  the  seeds  from  the  sawdust,  soil,  and  cotton,  and  distribute  them 

among  the  pupils. 

Have  the  pupils  describe  the  condition  of  the  seed.  Each  pupil  will  make 
a  drawing,  showing  one  day's  growth. 

Return  the  seeds  to  the  tumblers.  A  few  of  them  may  be  retained  for  the 
purpose  of  investigation. 

Open  these  and  have  the  pupils  see  the  seed  leaves  and  radicle.  The 
pupils  may  now  watch  for  these  to  appear  in  the  seeds  that  are  still  growing. 

Each  succeeding  day's  lesson  is  to  consist  of  similar  observation,  conversa- 
tion, and  drawing,  to  show  the  growth  and  development  until  a  perfect  plant 
i-  formed,  showing  root,  stem,  and  leaves. 

During  these  lessons  some  plants  should  be  placed  in  the  dark.  Some 
should  be  placed  where  they  will  receive  no  heat;  others  should  be  given  no 
moisture.  Lead  the  pupils  to  note  the  effect  of  depriving  the  plant  of  light, 
heat,  or  moisture,  and  also  to  see  the  necessity  of  these  elements  to  plant 
growth. 

Show  the  pupils  also  that  the  plants  would  not  continue  to  grow  and  thrive 
in  either  sawdust  or  cotton  because  these  do  not  contain  materials  for  nour- 
ishing the  plant  such  as  are  found  in  soil. 

Alter  these  talks,  have  each  pupil  write  an  account  of  how  a  plant  grows 
from  the  seed.  The  summary  can  be  used  as  a  reading  lesson  for  review.  It 
is  also  to  be  used  by  the  pupil  as  a  reference  with  which  to  refresh  his  memory 
from  time  to  time. 

Succeeding  lessons  in  Nature  Study  and  History  are  to  be  conducted  ac- 
cording to  the  same  methods.  Observation,  investigation,  and  discussion  along 
the  line  indicated  by  the  questions  must  always  precede  the  written  lesson. 


OUTLINES  IN  NATURE  STUDY. 


I.    PLANTS. 


PLANTS  IN  GENERAL. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Compare  the  stems   of    a  number    of   plants.     Name    Bom< 
plants  that  have  soft  stems ;  woody  stems.     Name  sonic  whose 
stems  or  branches  are  covered  with  bark. 

Which  plants  are  called  herbs?  shrubs?  trees?  How  do 
shrubs  and  trees  resemble   each  other?     How  do  they  differ! 

What  are  vines?  In  what  various  ways  do  they  climb  *.'  Name 
some  that  climb  by  means  of  tendrils;  rootlets.  Sonic  thai 
climb  by  winding  the  plant  itself  around  its  support. 

Compare  these  classes  of  plants  with  reference  to  their  length 
of  life,  size,  shape,  etc. 

On  what  do  plants  feed?  What  do  they  breathe?  Which  part 
of  the  plant  performs  the  work  of  breathing?  What  other  uses 
have  the  leaves?  How  does  a  plant  provide  for  its  future 
growth?  Name  some  plants  in  which  the  Beed  pod  is  made 
attractive  so  that  the  seeds  will  be  planted  elsewhere.  Name 
some  plants  in  which  the  material  for  future  growth  is  stored  jay 
the  seed  leaves.  ^#f  U     tt#€* 


2  OUTLINES   E*   NATURE   STUDY. 

Name  some  plants  in  which  the  material  for  future  growth  is 
stored  in  underground  stems;  in  the  roots. 

I  low  are1  the  Beeds  of  the  pine  tree  protected?  Why  is  the 
chestnut  encased  in  a  burr?  Why  has  the  walnut  so  hard  a  cov- 
ering? Of  what  color  is  the  covering  of  the  walnut?  the  fil- 
bert ?  the  chestnut? 

( )t"  what  advantage  is  it  to  the  tree  that  the  seed  cover  should 
be  of  this  color  ?    Why  should  the  seeds  of  these  plants  be  so  fleshy  ? 

Why  are  the  unripe  fruits  of  various  trees  and  bushes  green  in 
color  ? 

( )f  what  use  to  plants  are  insects?  Of  what  use  to  plants  are 
the  color  and  the  fragrance  of  the  blossoms?  Of  what  use  are 
thorns  to  plants  ? 

Of  what  use  is  rain?  snow?  How  do  worms  assist  the 
growth  of  plants?  In  what  ways  are  air  and  wind  of  use  to 
plants? 

How  do  beasts,  birds,  and  streams  assist  in  scattering  seeds? 

Of  what  uses  are  plants  to  beasts  ?  birds  ?  reptiles  ?  insects  ? 

In  how  many  ways  are  plants  useful  toman?  Name  some 
plants  that  furnish  us  with  food,  medicine,  dyes,  perfumes, 
building  materials  for  houses,  furniture,  vessels,  fuel,  etc. 

Watch  some  flowering  plants  to  observe  their  habits.  Some 
blossoms  close  at  twilight;  some  close  during  the  heat  of  the 
day.  Why?  Why  is  the  sunflower  so  called?  Why  is  the 
moonflower  so  called?  Why  is  the  heliotrope  so  called ?  Why 
has  the  morning-glory  its  name?  Some  blossoms  are  open  at 
night ;  to  what  animals  are  they  of  use  ?  Some  flowers  are 
supplied  with  hairs  so  arranged  that  insects  cannot  enter  them. 
Other  flowers  have  their  parts  so  arranged  that  insects  can  enter, 
but  cannot  leave  them. 


OUTLINES   IN   NATURE   STUDY. 


Plants  have  many  peculiar  habits  ;  some  like  plenty  of  water  ; 
some  grow  best  among  rocks. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   PLANT   FROM   THE   SEED. 

Examine  some  peas,  beans,  corn,  wheat,  and  other  seeds.  Soak- 
some  of  these  seeds  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  examine 
them  again  to  find  out  what  effect  the  soaking  lias  had. 

Plant  some  of  these  seeds  and  watch  them  -tow.  Pull  them 
up  from  time  to  time  to  see  how  the  root  is  growing.  These 
can  be  planted  in  moist  earth,  sawdust,  or  raw  cotton.  Keep  the 
materials  moist,  Another  way  is  to  cover  a  tumbler  of  water 
with  a  piece  of  netting  or  other  thin  cotton  goods,  and  place  the 
soaked  seeds  on  the  wet  cover. 

Make  a  drawing  of  the  dry  and  the  soaked  seeds;  also  daily 
drawings  to  show  the  growth. 

What  things  are  necessary  to  the  growth  of  a  plant?  Where 
does  it  obtain  its  food  or  the  materials  for  making  it  grow  V  Will 
a  plant  grow  in  the  dark?  in  the  cold?  where  there  is  no 
moisture?  in  extreme  heat?     Place  some  of  the  growing  plains 

O  >         1 

under  these  various  conditions  and  observe  the  effect  upon  them. 

What  things  are  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants? 

How  are  plants  supplied  with  light,  heat,  and  moisture  '.' 

In  the  larger  cities  there  are  many  places  which  can  be  visited 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  numerous  varieties  of  plants.  In 
Philadelphia,  for  instance,  Bartram's  Garden  and  Horticultural 
Hall  contain  many  species  of  plants. 

A  visit  to  the  woods  and  fields  will  be  the  means  of  obtain- 
ing much  interesting  information. 


L&       "1"VU       ^^IV^UIIq 


4  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

Summary. 

After  the  soe<l  has  been  placed  in  the  soil,  it  receives  heat  from  the  sun, 
and  moisture  from  the  rain.  These  cause  the  seed  to  burst  open.  It  sends 
a  tiny  root  down  into  the  ground  and  a  stem  up  through  the  ground.  The 
stem  growB  above  the  ground  and  bears  leaves  and  flower  buds.  These 
flower  buds  erow  larger  and  become  flowers.  Inside  of  the  flower  is  the 
fruit  After  the  flower  petals  fall  off,  the  fruit  grows  larger.  In  the  fruit 
we  find  the  seeds  for  new  plants. 

The  root  also  grows  larger.  It  takes  in  food  from  the  soil  for  the  growth 
of  the  plant. 

Light,  heat,  ah-,  moisture,  and  earth  supply  the  plant  with  materials  for  its 
growth. 

ROOTS, 

Conversational  Lesson. 

What  is  a  plant  ? 

Name  the  parts  of  a  plant.  Where  is  the  root  of  a  plant  ?  Of 
what  uses  is  it  to  the  plant?  How  do  roots  vary  in  size  and. 
shape?  Do  all  plants  need  the  same  kind  of  food?  Why  do 
farmers  change  the  kind  of  crops  in  a  field  in  different  years? 
Where  does  a  plant  obtain  its  food?  What  brings  food  to  the 
roots  of  plants? 

Colled  as  many  different  kinds  of  roots  as  possible.  Make 
drawings  of  them  to  show  the  different  shapes.  Many  roots 
can  be  planted  in  moist  sand  in  September,  and  the  growth  of 
the  plant  watched. 

Summary. 

A  plant  is  anything  that  grows  with  a  root,  stem,  and  leaves. 

The  root  of  a  plant  absorbs  food  from  the  moist  ground.     It  also  furnishes 


OUTLINES   IN   NATURE   STUDY. 

a  base  which  supports  the  plant  in  an  upright  position.  It  fastens  the  plant 
in  the  ground  so  that  it  can  most  easily  obtain  the  necessary  food. 

Roots  vary  in  shape.  Some  have  one  main  body  which  is  broad  at  the  top 
and  tapers  toward  the  bottom.  Among  roots  of  this  kind  are  the  radish, 
carrot,  beet,  and  turnip.  These  roots  are  furnished  with  hair-like  rootlets, 
which  absorb  the  liquid  food. 

Others  have  no  main  body,  but  are  made  up  of  a  number  of  fibrous 
branches.  These  are  either  thread-like  or  fleshy.  Among  roots  of  tlii-  kin.] 
are  those  of  the  morning-glory,  dahlia,  sweet  potato,  grains,  and  trees. 

Plants  having  thick,  fleshy  roots  store  up  material  in  the  root  on  which 
the  plant  can  live  during  the  winter,  or  be  prepared  to  renew  its  growth  the 
next  spring. 


STEMS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Make  a  collection  of  as  many  stems  as  possible.  Examine 
their  structure  with  a  microscope  and  find  out  how  it  differs  in 
different  plants.  Also  find  out  how  the  stems  differ  in  Bize  and 
shape. 

As  the  stems  of  many  plants  will  decay  in  a  short  time,  draw- 
ings of  them  should  be  made  to  show  the  various  shapes. 

Where  are  steins  of  plants?  Of  what  uses  are  they  to  the 
plant?     How  does  the  sap  get  up  into  the  stem? 

(To  find  this  out,  hold  a  strip  of  muslin  with  one  end  in  .1 
basin  of  water,  and  see  what  happens.) 

Is  the  sap  of  all  plants  the  same?  Of  what  use  is  sap  to  a 
plant?  What  causes  a  flower  or  part  of  a  plant  to  wilt  when  it 
is  plucked?  What  two  things  cause  the  earth  in  a  Qower-pol  tu 
become  dry? 

Why  are  some  plantn  supplied  with  thorns? 


6  OUTLINES    IN    N ATI   UK    STUDY. 


Summary. 

The  Btem  is  the  part  of  the  plant  which  rises  above  the  ground  and  bears 
tlif  leaves  and  flowers.  Tin*  stems  cany  the  sap  from  the  root  to  the  leaves, 
where  it  is  acted  on  by  the  air,  and  a  part  of  the  moisture  is  taken  from  it 
and  Bent  out  by  the  leaves.  The  sap  then  goes  through  the  stems  to  every 
pari  of  the  plant  to  supply  it  with  materials  for  growth. 

Stems  are  of  many  different  shapes.  Some  are  round  and  solid  like  a 
cylinder.  Among  these  are  the  violet,  honeysuckle,  etc.  Some  are  shaped 
like  a  half  cylinder,  as  the  palm.  rI  ne  stems  of  some  plants  are  hollow,  as 
in  grasses  and  -rains.  Some  plants  have  stems  that  are  jointed,  as  grains,  the 
carnation,  and  the  bamboo.  Some  stems  are  thick,  with  several  flattened  sides, 
as  the  Btem  of  the  squash.  Some  are  flattened,  as  that  of  the  onion.  Others 
are  kidney-shaped,  as  the  rhubarb. 

Some  stems  are  supplied  with  thorns  to  protect  the  plant  against  snails, 
dugs,  and  other  creatures  that  would  injure  it. 

In  the  class  of  plants  called  shrubs  the  stems  are  woody.  The  trunk  and 
branches  of  trees  are  covered  with  bark. 

The  Bap  of  some  plants  is  thin  and  watery,  while  that  of  others  is  thick 
and  gummy.  Among  the  plants  whose  sap  is  thick  are  the  fir,  rubber-plant, 
cherry,  and  pine. 

In  Borne  plants  the  sap  is  colored.  Among  these  are  the  poppy,  milkweed, 
Borrel,  sumac,  etc. 


LEAVES. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Where  are  the  leaves  of  plants?  Of  what  uses  are  they  to 
plants?  What  would  be  the  result  if  all  of  the  leaves  were 
removed  from  a  plant?     Why  would  this  happen? 


OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY.  7 

Examine  as  many  different  leaves  as  possible  and  compare 
their  edges,  the  number  of  parts  of  which  they  are  composed, 
the  arrangement  of  their  veins,  etc. 

Examine  the  leaves  of  the  ivy,  the  violet,  the  rose,  the  lilac, 
the  wistaria,  the  cypress,  the  larkspur,  the  strawberry,  the  clover, 
the  horse-chestnnt. 

Which  of  these  leaves  have  one  part?  Which  leaves  arc  com- 
posed of  several  parts  ? 

Examine  the  leaves  of  the  morning-glory,  the  geranium,  tin1 
peach,  the  begonia,  the  fleur-de-lis  or  flag,  the  lilac,  the  carnation, 
the  pine,  and  various  grasses.  How  do  they  vary  in  shape? 
What  is  the  shape  of  each  of  these  leaves  ? 

What  kind  of  edo;e  has  each  of  the  following  leaves.  —  the 
lilac,  the  rose,  the  violet,  the  maple,  the  oak,  the  daisy,  the  butter- 
cup, the  dandelion,  the  rose-geranium,  oxalis,  etc.? 

Examine  the  veins  and  find  out  the  arrange  incut  of  the  lol>»-> 
and  notches  in  reference  to  the  veins. 

Find  some  leaves  which  have  a  pointed  tip;  some  thai  have 
a  rounded  tip;  some  with  a  notched  tip.  Compare  also  the 
bases  of  leaves.  Find  some  that  have  a  heart-shaped  base; 
some  that  have  a  flat,  broad  base;  some  that  have  a  taper- 
ing base.  Notice  how  the  leaf  and  the  stem  are  joined  in  differ- 
ent plants. 

Examine  a  number  of  plants  to  find  out  how  the  leaves  are 
arranged  on  the  stem,  —  whether  they  are  single  or  in  grou] 
whether  they  are  opposite  or  alternate,  etc. 

How  are  the  leaves  of  the  following  plants  arranged:  the 
morning-glory,  the  maple,  the  ivy,  the  horse-chestnut,  the  cedar, 
the  daisy,  the  wistaria,  etc.? 

The  surfaces  of  leaves  are  of  different  kinds.      Examine  the 


8  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

leaves  of  the  lily,  the  lilac,  the  geranium,  strawberry,  etc.,  and 
find  out  how  their  surfaces  differ. 

Compare  the  upper  and  under  surfaces  of  leaves. 

Examine  a  number  of  leaves  and  find  out  how  their  veins  are 
arranged.     Of  what  use  are  veins? 

A  collection  of  leaves  should  be  made,  consisting  of  as  many 
varieties  of  leaves  as  possible.  These  can  be  pasted  on  card- 
board, and  drawings  of  them  made  to  illustrate  the  differences  of 
shape,  edge,  etc. 

Use  a  magnifying  glass  to  examine  the  leaves  and  their  various 
parts. 

Summary. 

Leaves  of  different  plants  vary  in  size,  from  the  tiny  leaf  of  the  forget-me- 
not  to  that  of  the  elephant's  ear. 

Some  leaves  are  simple  and  some  are  compound  (that  is,  composed  of 
several  parts  or  leaflets).  Among  the  simple  leaves  are  those  of  ivy,  geranium, 
sweet  william. 

Some  compound  leaves  are  those  of  the  rose,  the  clover,  the  pea,  the  bean, 
strawberry,  etc 

The  edges  of  some  leaves  are  notched  in  various  ways,  —  as  the  rose,  the 
violet,  the  holly,  the  cherry,  the  willow,  the  palm,  etc. 

The  edges  of  some  leaves  are  plain,  —  as  the  carnation,  the  morning-glory, 
the  clover,  the  elephant's  ear,  etc. 

Some  leaves  are  lobed  and  also  have  notched  edges,  as  the  rnaple. 

Some  leaves  are  lobed  and  have  plain  edges,  as  the  sassafras,  the  oak,  the 
rose-geranium,  etc. 

Leaves  are  of  various  shapes.  Among  these  are  heart-shape,  as  the 
morning-glory;  oval,  as  the  leaflet  of  the  rose;  needle-shape,  as  those  of 
evergreens;  lance-shape,  as  that  of  the  peach;  shield-shape,  as  those  of  the 
nasturtium   and  the  geranium. 

Some  leaves  are  thick,  as  those  of  the  mullein  and  India-rubber  plant ;  some 
are  fleshy,  as  those  of  the  portulaca.     The  surface  of  some  leaves  is  smooth, 


OUTLINES   IX   NATURE    STUDY.  9 

as  the  ivy  and  laurel.  Others  have  a  hairy  surface,  as  the  mullein,  geranium, 
and  strawberry. 

The  veins  of  leaves  are  arranged  in  various  ways.  Some  are  parallel  and 
extend  from  base  to  tip,  as  in  the  lily  of  the  valley,  the  fleur-de-lis,  etc, 

Some  are  feather-veined,  as  the  rose,  the  lilac,  the  oak,  etc  Some  are  hand. 
veined,  as  the  ivy,  the  geranium,  the  nasturtium,  etc. 

Leaves  of  plants  vary  in  color.  Generally  they  are  green,  of  various  shades, 
as  the  nasturtium,  the  palm,  the  rose,  etc. 

Others  have  leaves  of  some  other  color,  as  the  coleu<.  the  mullein,  the  silvei 
maple,  the  miller's  plant,  Japanese  honeysuckle,  ribbon  grass,  etc. 

The  leaves  of  some  plants  have  a  pleasant  odor,  as  the  pine,  geranium, 
mint,  lemon,  etc. 

Leaves  are  of  use  to  the  plant  in  absorbing  light  and  heat.  They  also  take 
in  material  from  the  air  (carbonic  acid  gas)  which  ads  on  the  sap  s<>  that  it 
will  give  more  nourishment  to  the  plant.  Leaves  also  send  out  moisture 
which  the  plant  does  not  need. 


FLOWERS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Of  what  use  to  the  plant  is  the  flower?  Which  pari  ifl  called 
the  calyx?  the  corolla?  the  stamens?  the  pistil?  Why 
the  end  of  the  flower  stalk  called  the  receptacle  ?  T<>  wli.it  is  tin* 
pistil  fastened?  Of  what  use  is  it?  Of  whal  use  are  the 
stamens?  Of  what  use  are  insects  to  flowers?  Of  whal  use  b 
color  to  flowers  ?  Of  what  use  arc  flowers  to  insects  V  Of  whai 
use  are  flowers  to  birds?  Why  are  some  flowers  open  at  nighl  V 
How  do  the  corollas  of  different  flowers  vary  in  structure,  size, 
shape,  color,  number  of  parts,  etc.? 

What  injury  is  it  to  pluck  the  blossom  of  a  plant  V 

How    do  flowers  vary  in    their  arrangement  on  the  stem  or 


10  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

branch  of  a  plant?     Name  some  flowers  that  are  fragrant.     Of 
whal  value  is  odor  to  the  plant? 

As  many  blossoms  as  possible  should  be  examined  with  the  aid 
of  a  magnifying  glass,  and  their  various  parts  observed. 

Drawings  to  illustrate  the  various  parts  and  shapes  should  also 
be  made. 

Summary. 

The  blossom  protects  the  seed  pod.  It  is  composed  of  several  different 
parts.  These  are  the  calyx,  the  corolla,  the  stamens,  and  the  pistil.  The  re- 
ceptacle is  the  end  of  the  stalk  which  holds  all  of  the  parts  of  the  blossom 

ether. 

The  calyx  is  the  green  covering  between  the  stem  and  the  corolla. 
"  Calyx  "  means  cup,  and  it  is  so  called  because  it  holds  and  protects  the  rest 
of  the  blossom. 

The  corolla  is  that  part  of  the  blossom  inside  of  the  calyx.  It  is  either 
white  or  colored,  but  very  rarely  green.  It  contains  a  sweet  fluid,  on  which 
ma^y  insects  feed.  Its  color  is  useful  to  attract  insects.  It  protects  the 
honey  for  which  the  insects  visit  the  plant,  and  it  protects  the  pollen  which  is 
the  food  of  the  seed  vessel. 

The  stamens  are  a  number  of  slender,  thread-like  parts  inside  of  the 
corolla.  At  the  top  of  each  stamen  is  a  little  box  or  ball  containing  yellow 
dust  called  pollen. 

The  pistil  is  that  part  of  the  plant  which  is  attached  to  the  seed  pod  at  its 
base.  The  pistil  is  in  the  center  of  the  stamens.  It  is  capped  by  a  rough, 
moist  knob.  The  pollen  of  the  stamens  falls  on  this  knob  and  is  used  to 
nourish  the  seed  in  the  pod  at  its  base. 

Winds  and  insects  assist  in  causing  the  pollen  to  reach  the  pistil. 

The  colors  of  flowers  attract  insects,  which  are  useful  in  supplying  the 
seed  vessel  with  the  pollen. 

Flowers  vary  in  color  and  in  the  arrangement  of  their  various  parts. 

Sometimes  the  corolla  is  composed  of  a  number  of  parts,  as  in  the  buttercup, 
the  apple-blossom,  the  dandelion,  etc.  In  some  plants  the  corolla  consists  of 
one  pai%  as  the  morning-glory,  phlox,  spring  beauty,  etc.   . 


OUTLINES   IN   NATUBE    STUDY.  11 

The  corolla  is  of  various  shapes.  Among  these  are  bell-shape,  Bfl  the  lily 
of  the  valley;  star-shape,  as  the  quaker  lady;  salver-shape,  as  the  geranium; 
funnel- shape,  as  the  morning-glory. 

The  corollas  of  some  flowers  are  irregular  in  shape,  as  the  violet,  the  -\i- 
pea. 

Some  flowers  grow  singly,  as  the  pansy,  the  violet,  buttercup,  the  quaker 
lady,  etc.  Others  grow  in  clusters,  as  the  lily  of  the  valley,  hyacinth, 
mignonette,  golden-rod,  clover,  yarrow,  etc 

The  stripes  in  the  petals  of  some  flowers  all  point  to  the  place  where  the 
insect  can  obtain  hone  v. 

The  hairs  which  are  on  the  petals  of  some  flowers  prevent  the  entrance 
insects  (such  as  the  ant)   which  would  obtain  the  honey  withoul   benefiting 
the  plant  by  dusting  the  pollen  on  the  seed  vessel. 

Some  flowers  have  no  pollen.  Bees,  butterflies,  and  moths  carry  pollen 
from  other  flowers  to  those  that  have  none. 


FRUITS  AND  SEEDS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

When  the  flower  petals  fall  off,  what  part  of  the  plant  develops 
rapidly?     Where  is  the  fruit  while  the  blossom    is   still  on  the 

plant  ? 

Of  what  use  to  the  plant  is  the  fruit?  What  injury  is  done  to 
the  plant  if  the  blossoms  are  plucked  ? 

Of  what  uses  are  fruits  to  man  ? 

Examine  as  many  fruits  and  seeds  as  possible  in  reference  to 

their  difference  in  structure,  si ze3  shape,  color,  number  of  cells, 

and  seeds. 

Soak  and  open  a  number  of  seeds,  and  observe  the  pari-  inside 

of  the  seed. 


12  OUTLINES   IN    NATURE   STUDY. 


Summary. 

When  the  seeds  have  been  sufficiently  nourished  by  the  pollen,  the  sta- 
mens and  corolla  are  no  longer  needed.  These  fall  off,  and  the  sap  that  is 
sent  through  the  blossom  stem  is  use'd  for  the  growth  of  the  seed  pod. 

When  the  seed  vessel  is  ripe  it  is  called  the  fruit. 

Fruits  are  arranged  in  classes  according  to  the  covering  of  the  seeds  and 
the  arrangemenl  of  the  seed  cells. 

Some  fruits  have  a  thin,  dry  covering  composed  of  several  valves,  which 
split  open.  Fruits  of  this  kind  are  called  pods,  as  the  pea,  bean,  willow, 
larkspur,  etc. 

^•■nie  fruits  have  a  covering  that  is  not  composed  of  separate  -parts,  as  the 
buttercup  and  various  grains. 

In  some  plants  the  seeds  have  a  thick,  hard  covering,  as  the  walnut,  filbert, 
acorn,  almond,  etc. 

In  some  plants,  the  inner  wall  of  the  seed  holder  becomes  thick  and  hard 
and    the    outer    part    becomes    fleshy,    as    the    peach,    plum,    prune,    olive, 

cherry,  etc. 

The  seed  cells  of  some  fruits  have  horny  walls  surrounded  by  a  fleshy  cover- 
ing, as  the  apple  and  pear. 

The  seeds  of  some  fruits  are  not  arranged  in  cells  but  have  a  fleshy  cov- 
ering in  which  thev  are  distributed.  A  fruit  of  this  kind  is  called  a  berry, 
as  the  currant,  cranberry,  tomato,  watermelon,  cucumber,  squash,  orange, 
banana,  etc. 

Within  each  seed  is  a  tiny  plant  consisting  of  a  radicle  (stem)  and  seed 
leaves.  At  one  end  of  the  radicle  is  the  plumule,  which  grows  upward  and 
forms  the  stem.  The  other  end  of  the  radicle  grows  downward,  and  becomes 
the  root. 

Some  seeds  contain  one  seed  leaf,  as  the  various  kinds  of  grain.  In  some 
other  seeds  there  are  two  seed  leaves,  as  the  pea,  bean,  morning-glory, 
almond,  etc. 

The  seeds  of  pine  trees  contain  several  seed  leaves. 


OUTLINES   IX    NATUEE    STUDY.  18 


TREES. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Why   are  trees   plants?     What  difference    is  there    between 

trees    and    other    plants?     What   is   the    main    body    of  a    ti 
called?     What  is  the  difference  between  a  stalk  and  a   trunk? 
Which  live  longer, —  plants  with  woody  stems,  or  those  whose 
stems  are  not  woody  ? 

How  do  trees  indicate  their  a^e  ?  During  which  seasons  do 
trees  grow?  Of  what  uses  to  the  tree  arc  the  following:  the 
roots?  the  sap?  the  trunk  and  branches?  the  leaves?  tin- 
hark?  the  fruit?  Of  what  use  arc  leaves  after  they  fall  from 
the  tree?  Compare  the  bark  of  different  trees  and  find  out 
some  that  have  smooth  and  some  that  have  rough  bark.  Com- 
pare also  in  reference  to  color,  thickness,  etc 

How  does  the  chestnut  tree  protect  its  seed  leaves?  the 
walnut?  the  pine  ?  Why  are  the  seeds  protected  in  this  way? 
Of  what  uses  are  trees  to  man?  to  leasts'.'  to  birds?  t<»  in- 
sects? Name  some  trees  of  which  we  use  the  bark,  the  bast> 
the  sap,  the  leaves,  the  fruit,  the  seeds. 

Name  some  trees  that  furnish  materials  for  each  of  the  follow- 
ing purposes:  food,  medicine,  fuel,  shade,  building  purposes, 
etc.  From  which  part  of  a  tree  do  we  obtain  cork,  quinine,  <>li\»' 
oil,  material  for  making  matting,  baskets? 

Of  what  uses  are  the  maple,  sugar  maple,  birch,  yellow  pine, 
white  oak,  walnut,  peach,  India  rubber,   fir,  cinnamon,  nntne 
palm,  olive,   cinchona,  ash,  white   pine,  linden  or  lime   tree,  wil- 
low, elm  ? 


14  OUTLINES    IX    NATTJBB    STUDY. 

Which  part  of  each  of  these  trees  do  we  use  ? 

Wh.it  are  forests?  Of  what  uses  are  forests?  Name  some 
trees  that  are  found  in  forests. 

Of  what  wood  is  each  of  the  following  articles  in  the  school- 
room made:  iloor,  desks,  teacher's  desk,  chair,  blackboard  frame, 
bookcase,  lead  pencil,  etc.  ? 

Examine  a  cross  section  of  a  tree  and  observe  the  pith,  the 
rin  lis  of  growth,  the  sap  wood,  etc. 

A  collection  of  the  different  kinds  of  wood  should  be  made,  as 
well  as  a  collection  of  leaves.  These  should  be  drawn,  also,  to 
indicate  how  the  leaves  of  trees  differ  in  size,  shape,  arrange- 
ment, etc. 

A  visit  to  the  woods  or  to  a  park  will  be  a  means  of  obtaining 
much  valuable  information.  Bartram's  Garden,  in  Philadelphia, 
contains  many  varieties  of  trees  and  plants. 

A  dictionary  or  encyclopedia,  and  many  other  books  in  any 
public  library,  will  furnish  much  information  in  reference  to  trees 
and  other  plants,  their  uses  to  us,  the  uses  of  their  different  parts 
to  the  trees  themselves,  etc. 

Summary. 

Plants  are  divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  their  length  of  life  and 
kind  of  stem.     These  are  called  herbs,  shrnbs,  and  trees. 

Herbs  are  ]>lants  with  soft  stems  which  do  not  live  through  the  winter. 

onetimes  the  root  remains  alive  and  the  plant  grows  again  in  the  next  spring. 
Sometimes  the  root  aN<>  dies.  Among  plants  of  this  kind  are  the  morning- 
glory,  pea,  dandelion,  carnation,  etc 

Shrubs  are  plants  with  many  Avoodv  stems  rising  from  the  root.  Thev  are 
gem-rally  less  than  ten  feet  high.  They  are  able  to  endure  the  winter  season. 
Among  plants  of  this  kind  are  the  blackberry,  spiraea,  hydrangea,  and  syringa 
or  orange  blossom. 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  15 

Trees  are  plants  with  woody  stems  branching  from  a  trunk  Th<  ow 
from  ten  to  sixty  feet  high.     Tlie  trunk  is  generally  somewhat  conical  in 

shape,  larger  at  the  base  and  tapering  toward  the  t<>|>. 

The  part  of  the  tree  that  is   just  under  the  hark  is  the  <>nly  part  that  is 
really  alive.     This  is  called  the  sapwood.     Through  the  sapwood   the  Bap 
starts  to  rise  in  the  spring  to  feed  all  of  the  parts  of  tin-  tree  that  are  ab< 
the  ground,  so  that  they  can  grow.     Anew  layer  of  wood   i-  thus  formed 
each  year.     During  the  winter  season  the  tree  ceases  it-  work  of  growing. 

The  pith  in  the  center  is  white  and  soft,  and  always  remains  the  -aim*. 
Youn^  trees  s^row  faster  than  older  ones.  For  this  reason  the  rings  near  the 
center  are  thicker  and  plainer  than  those  near  the  hark. 

A  forest  is  a  large  tract  of  woodland  that  has  never  been  cultivated. 

The  moisture  in  the  form  of  rain,  snow,  etc.,  that  falls  in  forests,  does  not 
run  off  on  the  surface.     The  snow  melts  more  slowly  in  the  forest   than  it 
does  in  other  places,  and  the  moisture  from  the  rain  and  snow  sinks  into  I 
ground,  and  forms  springs  which  come  to  the    surface    and    Bupply  creeks 
and  streams  with  water. 

Trees  purify  the  ah  for  human  beings.  The  leaves  take  in  carbonic  acid 
gas  from  the  atmosphere  and  send  out  oxygen.  The  roots  absorb  moistu 
from  the  ground  and  send  it  out  slowly  into  the  air  through  the  leav«  The 
leaves  absorb  heat  and  light  for  the  use  of  the  tree,  thu-  further  modifying 
the  temperature.  Forests  influence  the  rainfall,  modify  the  climate,  and  afford 
protection  and  homes  to  many  animals. 

Trees  furnish  us  with  food,  medicine,  fuel,  shade,  materials  for  building 
purposes,  such  as  houses,  vessels,  furniture,  etc. 


PARTS  OF  PLANTS  USED  FOR  FOOD. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Name  some  plants  that  furnish  us  with  fond.  Name  Bome 
plants  of  which  we  eat  the  seeds;  seed-covering;  roote;  stems; 
sap  ;  bark ;  leaves. 


1(3  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

Why  is  it  that  some  plants  are  not  used  as  food?  What  prop- 
erty must  a  plant  possess  to  make  it  valuable  as  food? 

What  color  is  the  covering  of  the  walnut,  the  filbert,  the  chest- 
nut, etc.?  Of  what  advantage  to  the  tree  is  it  that  its  seed-cover 
should  be  of  this  color?  Why  are  these  seed-covers  so  hard? 
Why  is  the  chestnut  covered  by  a  burr? 

What  parts  of  the  seed  do  Ave  eat  in  these  foods?     Why  are 

they  so  fleshy? 

Why  are  many  unripe  fruits  and  berries  green  in  color  ?  Why 
are  ripe  fruits  of  various  bright  colors? 

Name  some  plants  whose  roots  are  used  for  food.  How  do 
they  differ  in  color,  size,  shape,  arrangement,  etc.?  What  is  the 
reason  for  the  fleshy  texture  of  these  roots  ?  By  what  means  do 
these  roots  perform  their  work  of  absorbing  liquid  food  from  the 

ground  ? 

From  what  part  of  the  plant  do  we  obtain  each  of  the  follow- 
ing foods:  celery,  rice,  pepper,  mustard,  nutmeg,  cinnamon, 
vanilla,  coffee,  cocoa,  tea,  chestnut,  walnut,  water  cress,  onion, 
spinach,  strawberry,  olive,  fig,  date,  watermelon, white  potato, etc.? 

Toward  which  end  of  the  potato  do  the  eyes  of  a  potato  curve  ? 
Which  part  of  the  potato  does  the  farmer  plant  ? 

Collections  of  roots,  stems,  leaves,  fruits,  seeds,  etc.,  that  will 
not  decay  should  be  made.  Pictures  of  many  of  them  can  be 
found  in  seed  catalogues.  Drawings  of  each  class  of  foods  should 
also  be  made. 

Summary. 

The  roots  of  some  plants  are  used  for  food.  Among  these  are  the  turnip, 
carrot,  radish,  beet,  etc.  These  roots  were  used  by  the  plants  for  storing  food 
to  assist  the  growth  of  the  plant  during  the  following  year. 


OUTLINES   IX    NATUBB    STUDY.  17 

Among  stems  that  are  use<l  for  food  are  those  of  the  celery,  rhubarb, 
paragus,  white  j)otato,  and  onion.     The  white  potato  is  an  underground  stem, 
bearing  tiny  buds  and  leaves  (eye  and  scale).     The   •minii  i>  a   short,   unde- 
veloped, underground  stem,  bearing  a  great  many  crowded  Leaves  which  over- 
lap each  other. 

Among  seeds  which  are  used  for  food  are  peas,  beans,  celery  seeds,  rice  and 
other  grains,  pepper,  coffee,  mustard,  nutmeg,  vanilla  beans,  cocoa  beans,  and 
the  kernels  or  seed  leaves  of  various  nuts,  such  as  the  chestnut,  walnut, 
filbert,  e^. 

Some  plants  whose  leaves  furnish  us  with  food  are  the  cabbage,  celery,  tea, 
parsley,  lettuce,  water-cress,  spinach,  thyme,  sage,  sweet  marjoram,  etc. 

The  seed-covering  of  some  plants  or  fruits  is  used  for  food.     Among  V. 
are  the  apple,  date,  prune,  peach,  pineapple,  blackberry,  strawberry,  olive, 
pepper,  etc.     Cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree. 


HOW  PLANTS  ARE  PREPARED  FOR  FOOD. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Of  what  use  is  food  to  us?     Why  are  some  plants  used  for 

food  ? 

Name    some    plants    that   furnish    us    with    beverages,  —  tea, 
coffee,  cocoa,  wine,  cider,  etc. 

From  what  plants  do  we  obtain  extracts  or  essences  for  use 
flavoring,  such  as  vanilla,  lemon,  etc.  V 

Mention  some  oils  that  we  use  for  food,  and   tell    from  what 
part  of  the  plant  each  is  obtained. 

What  is  meant  by  seasoning?     Mention  some  plants  thai  are 
of  use  for    this  purpose.     From   which    pari    of    each    plant    is 

this  food  obtained  ? 

How  do  we  obtain  sugar,  molasses,  cinnamon,  and  other  spices? 


18  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 


Summary. 

Some  plants  furnish  us  with  material  for  making  beverages.  Tea  is  made 
from  the  leaves  of  a  plant  that  are  gathered  and  dried.  This  plant  grows 
principally  in  China. 

Coffee  is  the  seed  or  bean  of  a  plant.  Eaeh  berry  contains  two  seeds. 
The  seeds  are  removed  from  the  fruit,  freed  from  every  particle  of  cov- 
ering, and  thoroughly  dried.  The  coffee  plant  grows  in  parts  of  South 
America  and  the  East  and  West  India  Islands.  It  grows  only  in  warm 
countries.  Cocoa  is  made  from  the  ground  bean  or  seed  of  a  tree  that  grows 
in  Central  America  and  the  West  India  Islands. 

Wine  is  made  from  the  pulp  and  juice  of  grapes.  Vinegar  and  cider  are 
made  from  the  juice  of  apples. 

Spices  are  also  obtained  from  various  plants.  Xutmeg  is  the  dried  seed  of 
a  juicy,  pulpy  fruit  that  looks  something  like  a  mellow  peach.  The  tree  on 
which  it  grows  resembles  the  laurel.  Cloves  are  the  unripe  tlower  buds  of  a 
tree.  Cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree.  The  finest  cinnamon  is  obtained 
from  the  new  shoots  that  spring  from  the  roots. 

Mustard  is  the  powdered  seed  of  a  plant.  Pepper  is  made  by  powdering 
the  dried  berry  of  the  pepper  plant.  All  of  these  spices  grow  in  the  East 
and  West  India  Islands.     They  grow  only  in  warm  countries. 

From  some  plants  we  obtain  oil.  Olive  oil  is  pressed  out  of  the  pulp  and 
seeds  of  the  fruit  of  a  tree.  The  seeds  of  the  cotton  plant  furnish  us 
with  oil.  Vanilla  extract  is  obtained  by  soaking  the  vanilla  bean  in  alcohol 
and  adding  water  and  sugar. 

Flour  is  obtained  by  threshing  the  grain  from  its  husk.  The  grains  are 
ground  and  crushed  between  heavy  rollers.  The  flour  is  then  separate- 1 
from  the  hull  by  being  passed  through  very  thin  material  called  bolting 
cloth. 

Sugar  is  obtained  from  the  sap  of  the  sugar  cane.  Sugar  cane  is  cut  into 
pieces  and  boiled  until  a  thick  syrup  is  obtained.  This  is  separated  into  two 
parts.  The  thick  fluid  is  molasses,  and  the  remainder,  or  sediment,  is  brown 
sugar.  It  is  whitened  by  another  process.  We  obtain  sugar  also  from  beets 
and  certain  kinds  of  maple  trees. 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  19 

Some  plant  foods  are  not  fit  to  eat  until  they  are  cooked  The  heat  acta 
on  the  materials  in  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them  of  more  use  in  nour- 
ishing the  body.     Sometimes  they  need  heal  and  moisture  also.     Wlien  flour 

is  made   into   bread   it  needs  fermentation,  moisture,  and   heal   to  render  it 

fit  for  use  as  food. 


II.     THE  HUMAN  BODY. 


GENERAL  PLAN  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

What  are  the  principal    divisions  of   the    human  body?  To 

which  part  are  the  arms  and  legs  joined?  What  forms  the 
framework  of  the  human  body?  How  is  the  skeleton  covered? 
With  what  are  the  muscles  covered? 

In  which    part  of  the    body  is  the  brain?  the  stomach?  the 

heart?  What  other  organs  are  in  the  trunk?  Where  are  the 
blood  vessels?     What  uses  has  the  blood? 

Summary. 

The  human  body  is  made  up  of  two  principal  parts,  the  head  and  trunk. 
To  the  trunk  are  attached  the  arms  and  leers.  It  consists  of  a  bonv  skeleton 
covered  with  flesh  (or  muscles)  and  fat.'  Throughout  the  flesh  are  blood- 
vessels through  which  the  blood  flows  to  carry  new  materials  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  and  to  take  away  those  which  are  worn  out. 

The  flesh  is  covered  with  two  la  vers  of  skin.  At  the  ends  of  the  fingers 
and  toes  are  nails,  and  on  the  head  there  is  a  growth  of  hair.  There  are  also 
fine  hairs  all  over  the  body. 

The  trunk  is  like  a  house  with  two  rooms  in  it.  In  the  upper  chamber  are 
the  heart  and  lungs.  In  the  lower  chamber  are  the  stomach,  liver,  and  intes- 
tines.    These  two  chambers  are  separated  by  a  large  muscle. 

The  bony  part  of  the  head  is  called  the  skull.  Inside  of  the  skull  is  the 
brain,  from  which  the  nerves  radiate  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

20 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  21 


HOW  TO   TAKE    CARE  OF   THE  HUMAN    BODY. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Why  do  we  need  food?  How  much  food  do  \\ < *  need  to  eal  '.' 
What  is  meant  by  nourishment?  What  is  the  resull  if  we  do 
not  eat  enough  nourishing  food  '.'  if  we  eat  too  much  ? 

What  else  besides  food  do  we  take  into  our  bodiee  Of  wli.it 
use  is  air  to  us?  What  organs  in  the  body  use  the  air  which  we 
inhale?  What  is  done  with  the  air  after  the  blood  has  used  it  '.' 
What  kind  of  air  do  we  breathe  out  ? 

What  is  meant  by  exercise?     Of  what  value  to  as  is  exercis< 
What  is  its  effect  on  different  parts  of  the  body?     What  is  the 
effect  of  too  much  exercise?  too  little?     What  is    the    use    of 
sleep  ? 

Why  is  it  necessary  to  bathe  the  body  frequentlj  .  Why  musl 
the  clothing  be  changed  frequently  at  all  seasons  of  the  yeai 

Why  do  we  need  clothing;?  Do  we  wear  the  same  kind  and 
amount  of  clothing;  at  all  seasons?     What  changes  do  we  mak 


Summary. 

To  keep  the  body  healthy  we  must  care  for  it  in  many  way-.  We  must 
eat  enoup-h  wholesome  food  to  nourish  it  well.  We  must  breathe  pure  air 
at  all  times,  when  we  are  asleep  as  well  as  when  we  are  awake.  The  whole 
ot  the  boclv  must  be  bathed,  and  clean  clothing  musl  he  put  on  frequently. 
We  should  dress  according  to  the  weather,  varying  the  kind  and  amount 
clothing  according  to  the  temperature  and  the  amount  of  moisture.  Each 
part  of  the  body  must  have  the  proper  kind  and  amount  of  exercise  to  enable 
it  to  do  its  work  well.     The  body  must  be  held  in  an  erect  position  in  Bitting 


22  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

or  standing.     .V  sufficient  amount  of  sleep  and  rest  is  necessary  to  the  health 
of  the  body.     We  must  avoid  the  use  of  stimulants  and  narcotics. 


FOOD  —  WHOLESOME  AND  UNWHOLESOME. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Why  does  the  body  need  food?  What  causes  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  to  wear  out?  To  what  does  food  become 
changed  before  the  bodv  can  use  it  ?  How  much  food  does  the 
bodv  need  ? 

Why  are  those  foods  unwholesome  that  are  not  easilv  digested 
(or  made  into  blood)  ?  Why  is  it  unwise  to  eat  too  much  food  ? 
Why  is  it  injurious  to  eat  between  meals?  Is  unripe  fruit  whole- 
some or  unwholesome  ?     Why  ? 

Name  some  classes  of  food  that  the  body  needs.  Why  is  it 
injurious  to  eat  too  much  sugar,  oil,  starch  foods,  etc.  ?  Why  is  it 
injurious  to  eat  foods  that  contain  too  much  nourishment  ? 

Why  should  food  be  properly  cooked  ? 

Summary. 

The  body  is  constantly  wearing  out,  and  needs  new  material  to  build  up 
the  different  parts.  The  food  that  is  eaten  is  made  into  blood.  The  blood 
carries  these  new  materials  to  each  part  of  the  body.  Food  should  contain 
the  kind  of  material  that  the  body  needs  for  its  nourishment. 

AVholesome  foods  are  those  that  contain  the  materials  necessary  for  the 

Mi 

growth  and  repair  of  the  body.  They  are  easily  digested.  Unwholesome 
foods  do  not  nourish  the  body,  or  they  are  not  easily  digested.  Some 
unwholesome  foods  interfere  with  the  building  up  of  the  body.  Foods  that 
contain  too  much  nourishment  are  unwholesome  if  taken  in  large  quantities. 


OUT  LINKS    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

Digestion  is  the  process  of  changing  the  food  into  a  condition  to  be  taken 

into  the  blood. 

The  first  thing  necessary  in  the  process  of  digestion  is  thoroughly  chewing 

the  food  and   mixing  it   with   the    saliva    that  is  in    the  mouth.     The  i ! 

then  passes  down  the  gullet  to  the  stomach.     The  stomach  contains  a  fluid 
called  gastric  juice,  which  is  mixed  with  the  fond  by  the  churning  action  of 

the  stomach. 

From  the  stomach  the  food  passes  into  the  intestines,  where  it  is  acted  on 
by  several  other   fluids.     All  through  the  intestines  are  tiny  bl I  \. 

which  absorb  material  to  make  blood. 


CLEANLINESS  AND  BATHING. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Use  a  magnifying  glass  to  examine  the  skin.  Find  <»ut  bow- 
many  layers  of  skin  cover  the  body.  Of  what  use  is  the  Bkin? 
Of  what  uses  are  the  oil  glands  and  sweat  elands!  What 
property  of  the  skin  permits  us  to  move  in  any  direction  '. 

How  does  the  skin  help  to  purity  the  blood'.'     How    does  it 
help  to  regulate  the  heat  of  the  body?     Wbat  causes  the  skin 
become  dirty  ? 

How  does  the  skin  wear  out?  Why  is  it  necessary  to  bathe 
the  body  frequently? 

Summary. 
The  skin  which  covers  the  body  consists  of  two  layers.     The  outer  layer  i> 

•  «  • 

the  scarf  skin.     The  inner  layer  or  true  skin  is  filial   with   blood  vessels  aud 
nerves.     The  use  of  the  scarf  skin  is  to  protect  the  true  -kin. 


24  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

The  >kin  is  also  furnished  with  oil  glands  and  sweat  glands.  The  oil 
glands  Becrete  oil  which  nourishes  the  skin.  The  sweat  glands  send  waste 
matter  out  of  the  body.     Perspiration  is  of  use  in  regulating  the  temperature 

of  the  body. 

The  scarf  skin  is  constantly  wearing  out,  and  falls  off  in  tiny  scales.  The 
oil  and  sweat  cause  the  dead  skin  to  stick  to  the  body  and  also  attract  float- 
in--  dirt  and  dust.  If  the  skin  is  not  washed  frequently,  the  tiny  glands  get 
clogged,  and  the  body  will  become  unhealthy.  Every  part  of  the  body  must 
be  washed  often  so  that  the  skin  will  be  able  to  do  its  work  properly. 

We  should  pnt  on  clean  clothing  frequently,  because  clothing  holds  the 
scales  of  the  dead  scarf  skin,  which  is  constantly  wearing  out 


CLOTHING  IN  HOT  AND  COLD  WEATHER 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Is  the  body  warm  ?  Is  it  warmer  or  cooler  than  the  air  around 
ns  ?     Prove  this  with  a  thermometer. 

How  does  a  piece  of  heated  metal  or  other  article  become 
cool  ?  How  does  the  human  body  lose  its  heat  ?  What  effect 
has  fanning  the  body  ?     Why  ? 

In  what  way  does  clothing  protect  us  from  heat?  from  cold? 

What  effect  has  the  wearing  of  woolen  clothing  ?  Why  does 
it  cause  us  to  feel  warm  ?  What  effect  has  the  wearing  of  cotton 
clothing?     Why? 

Examine  pieces  of  silk,  wool,  cotton,  and  linen  goods  with  a 
magnifying  glass.  What  is  the  difference  in  their  fibers? 
Which  is  the  warmest?     Why?     Which  is  the  coolest?     Why? 

Why  do  we  wear  hats  in  summer  ? 


OUTLINES    IX    NATUBB    .s'Ll'DV. 


Summary. 

The  heat  of  the  body  is  constantly  passing  off  from  the  surfiioe.  Anything 
that  causes  the  heat  to  pass  off  more  rapidly  makes  u8  fee]  cooler.  Any- 
thing that  prevents  the  heat  from  leaving  the  body  makes  as  feel  warmer. 

In  cold  weather  we  wear  woolen  clothing  to  prevent  the  heat  from  .--rap- 
ing from  the  body,  and  also  to  protect  it  from  the  cold  air. 

In  summer  we  wear  thin  cotton  or  linen  clothing  so  that   the  heat  i  i  the 
body  can  easily  escape.     This  also  permits  the  fresh  air  from  the  outside  to 
reach  the  skin,  and  thus  assists  it  in  cooling  the  body.     Clothing  also  prote 
the  body  from  the  heat  of  the  sun. 


THE  TEETH. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Examine  the  teeth  of  a  cat,  dog,  horse,  cow.  etc.,  as  well  as 
those  of  people.  Of  what  use  are  teeth?  On  what  does  each 
these  animals  feed?  Compare  our  teeth  with  those  of  these 
animals.  Are  our  teeth  all  of  one  shape?  Of  whal  use  are  the 
teeth  of  each  shape?  How  many  teeth  have  we  in  each  jaw? 
How  many  teeth  of  each  kind  have  we?  \Vh;it  is  meant  l>\  a 
tooth  decaying?  What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  decaj  Why 
does  a  toothache?  Of  wdiat  use  is  the  enamel?  Why  is  it 
necessary  to  cleanse  the  teeth  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  bodj  ! 

Howr  many  -sets  of  teetli  do  we  get  ?     Why  are  w<    Biipplied 
with  a  second  set?     What  are  the  differences  of  size  and  shape 
of  the  teeth  in  the  two  sets?     AYliv  do  we  have  twenty   teeth 
first  and  thirty-two  later  ? 


26  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 


Summary. 


The  teeth  are  hollow  and  are  made  of  a  hard,  bone-like  substance,  covered 
with  enamel.  Thev  are  fastened  in  the  iaws  by  roots.  Each  tooth  is  sup- 
plied  with  a  nerve.  The  part  of  the  tooth  that  we  see  is  called  the  crown. 
There  are  thirty-two  teeth  in  a  full  set,  sixteen  in  each  jaw.  Beginning  at 
the  middle  of  each  jaw,  there  are,  on  each  side,  two  incisors  or  cutting  teeth, 
one  canine  or  dog  tooth,  and  five  grinding  teeth. 

The  cutting  teeth  or  incisors  have  sharp  edges  for  cutting  or  biting  the 
food.  Animals  that  gnaw  have  teeth  of  this  kind.  The  canine  or  dog  tooth 
is  sharp  for  tearing  food.  Animals  that  feed  on  flesh  need  teeth  of  this 
kind. 

The  grinding  teeth  are  large,  strong  teeth,  and  they  have  broad  surfaces  for 
grinding  the  food.  Animals  that  feed  on  grass  or  grain  have  teeth  of  this 
kind.  The  first  two  grinders  are  called  bicuspids  because  they  have  two 
points  or  cusps.     The  last  three  grinders  are  called  molars. 

Teeth  decay  when  the  enamel  begins  to  wear  out.  This  is  caused  in 
various  ways.  Food  that  is  too  hard  or  too  hot  or  too  cold  will  cause  che 
enamel  to  crack.  Picking  the  teeth  with  a  pin,  biting  thread  or  string, 
cracking  nuts  or  other  hard  substances  are  likely  to  injure  the  enamel  and 
cause  the  teeth  to  decay. 

The  teeth  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  after  each  meal. 


THE  LUNGS  AND  BREATHING. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Examine  the  lung  of  a  chicken  to  obtain  an  idea  of  the  color 
and  texture  of  the  material  of  which  our  lungs  are  made. 

Look  at  pictures  of  the  lungs  to  find  out  their  shape. 

Where  are  the  lungs?  For  what  are  they  used?  How  do 
they  obtain  air  ?     Of  what  two  movements  does  breathing  con- 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    BTUDY.  27 

sist?  What  movement  is  made  by  the  Lungs  when  we  inhale 
air?  When  are  the  lungs  larger,  —  when  we  breathe  in  air 
or  when  we  breathe  out  air  ? 

What  kind  of  blood  is  sent  to  the  lungs?  Wh.it  kind  of  Mood 
leaves  the  lungs?  What  is  the  difference  in  the  color  of  pure 
and  impure  blood? 

Why  is  the  breath  warm  when  it  leaves  the  bodj  V 

Breathe  on  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer.      What  is  the  result? 
What   does    this    prove?     Breathe  on  a   piece  of  Looking-gla 
What  is  the  result?     What  does  this  prove?     Breathe  into  a 
bottle  containing  lime  water.     What  is  the  result  ?     What   does 
this  prove  ? 

What  causes  hiccoughs  ? 


Summary. 

We  have  two  lungs  in  the  chest.     They  are  made  of  pink,  spongy  material, 
and    are    filled    with    blood    vessels    and    air  cells.      We   use    the    lungs 
breathing. 

Breathing  consists  of  two  movements,  one  by  which  we  breathe  in  air,  and 
the  other  by  which  Ave  breathe  out  air.  We  breathe  in  pure  air  and  we 
breathe  out  impure,  poisonous  air. 

The  object  of  breathing  is  to  purity  the  Moo.l.  The  pure  air  which  we 
inhale  contains  oxygen.  It  enters  the  blood  and  changes  it  t<»  a  bright  red 
color. 

The  air  which  we  breathe  out  takes  impurities  from  the  blood.  It  contains 
carbonic  acid  gas. 

The  pure  blood  flows  from  the  heart  through  the  bod}  to  carry  new 
materials  for  building  up  the  different  parts  of  the  body.  It  also  gathers  the 
waste  material  from  each  part  of  the  body;  This  makes  it  impure  and  dark 
in  color.  Then  it  returns  to  the  lungs,  where  it  gives  up  its  impurities  and 
receives  a  supply  of  pure  air  in  exchange. 


28  OUTLINES    IN    N  ATI' UK    STUDY. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  BREATHING  PURE  AIR. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Where  is  the  air?  Can  it  be  seen?  How  do  yon  know  that 
it  is  all  around  von?  Of  what  use  is  it  tons?  What  is  the 
difference  between  the  fresh  air  that  we  take  into  the  lungs  and 
the  air  after  it  has  been  used  in  the  lungs? 

What  effect  does  breathing  pure  air  have  on  the  blood?  What 
would  be  the  effect  on  the  blood  if  we  were  to  inhale  impure  air? 
on  the  brain?     What  is  the  work  of  the  brain? 

When  air  is  very  impure  which  sense  warns  us  of  our  danger? 
Does  impure  air  have  a  pleasant  or  an  unpleasant  odor  ?  Are  we 
always  able  to  find  out  by  the  sense  of  smell  when  the  air  is  impure  ? 
When  the  air  in  a  classroom  (or  other  room  in  which  there  are 
many  people)  becomes  impure,  what  is  the  effect  on  the  occupants  ? 
What  is  it  necessary  to  do  to  avoid  this  ? 

Summary. 

Air  is  made  up  chiefly  of  two  gases :  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  The  one  that 
we  need  in  breathing  is  oxygen.  We  breathe  in  air  that  contains  oxygen  and 
some  of  it  is  used  up  by  the  blood  in  the  lungs.  The  air  that  we  breathe 
out  contain-  impure,  poisonous  air  in  place  of  the  oxygen  that  is  used.  This 
impure  air  is  called  carbonic  acid  gas. 

The  object  of  breathing  is  to  make  the  blood  pure.  If  the  blood  is  not 
pure  it  cannot  do  its  work,  and  the  different  parts  of  the  body  are  not  prop- 
erly nourished.  Inhaling  impure  air  will  thus  injure  every  part  of  the  body. 
If  the  lungs  are  constantly  supplied  with  air  that  is  not  pure,  they  will  be- 
come diseased. 

If  the  brain  is  supplied  with  impure  blood,  it  Mill  be  unable  to  do  its  work. 


OUTLINES    IN    MATURE    STUDY.  29 

Inhaling  impure  air  will  cause  a  feeling  of  dullness  and   drowsiness.     It   the 
air  that  is  inhaled  contains  a  large  quantity  of  poisonous  gas,  unconsciousn 
will  follow. 


VENTILATION  OF  ROOMS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

If  all  animals  that  breathe  air  are  constantly  breathing  out  im- 
pure,  poisonous  air,  why  does  not  the  air  around  us  become  im- 
pure? How  do  plants  help  to  purify  the  air?  How  does  wind 
help  to  purify  the  air?     How  does  rain  help  to  purity  the  air 

Is  the  air  inside  of  buildings  used  in  breathing?  Does  it  be- 
come impure?  Is  it  then  fit  for  breathing  ?  How  can  it  be  made 
fit  to  breathe  ?     What  is  ventilation  ? 

The  purity  of  the  air  in  a  room  can  be  tested  by  exposing  a 
jar  of  lime  water.     It  will  become  clouded  if  the  air  is  impui 

Which  is  purer,  warm  water  or  cold  water?  Which  is  purer, 
warm  air  or  cold  air  ? 

Can  a  room  be  ventilated  without  using  cold  air? 


Summary. 

The  open  air  is  constantly  being  changed  by  the  breathing  of  plants  and 

animals.     Animals  breathe  in  oxygen  and  breathe  oul    carbonic   acid 
Plants  breathe  in  carbonic  acid  gas  and  breathe  out  oxygen.     Wind  and  nun 
also  help  to  purify  the  air,  so  that  it  is  iit  for  us  to  breathe. 

The  air  inside  of  buildings  becomes  impure  in  many  ways.     Fire  and 
consume  the  oxygen,  and  people  are  constantly  making  the  air  impure  by 
taking  its  oxygen  and  giving  it  carbonic  acid  gas  in  exchange 

If  this  inside  ah  is  not  constantly  changed,  it  will  soon  contain  a  large  amount 


30  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  thus  be  unfit  to  breathe.  For  this  reason  there 
should  always  be  a  current  of  fresh  air  passing  through  the  different  room:'. 
There  should  always  be  an  opening  to  admit  pure  air  and  another  to  let  out 
impure  air. 

The  air  in  a  room  can  be  changed  rapidly  by  opening  all  the  doors  and 
windows. 


THE  BONY  STRUCTURE. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Examine  the  bone  of  a  sheep's  leg,  the  shin  bone  of  beef,  or 
other  bones  of  animals,  to  find  out  their  structure,  appearance, 
materials  of  which  they  are  made,  etc. 

Examine  the  bone  under  a  magnifying  glass.  What  appear- 
ance has  a  bone?  What  is  the  inside  of  a  long  bone  like?  Of 
what  use  is  this  ?  What  are  the  ends  of  the  bone  like  ?  What 
difference  is  there  between  the. ends  and  the  shaft? 

Place  a  bone  on  top  of  some  hot  coals,  and  tell  what  happens. 

Soak  a  bone  in  some  weak  muriatic  acid,  and  tell  what  happens. 

From  these  two  experiments  find  out  what  two  kinds  of  mate- 
rial make  bone. 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  bones  of  a  child  and  those 
of  a  grown  person  ? 

Think  about  the  different  bones  of  the  body  and  find  out  their 
uses :  The  skull,  the  ribs,  the  bones  of  the  arm  and  leg,  the 
collar-bone,  the  shoulder-blades. 

Of  what  use  are  the  bones  to  the  muscles  ?  Consider  the  vari- 
ous sizes  and  shapes  of  bones,  and  how  they  are  fitted  for  their 
special  work  in  the  body. 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  :\\ 


Summary. 

The  bones  form  the  framework  of  the  body.  They  have  three  u&  Thev 
give  shape  and  support  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body.  They  protect 
organs  inside  of  the  body  and  are  used  as  a  firm  place  to  which  the  muse 
are  fastened  so  that  they  can  act.  There  are  more  than  two  hundred  boi 
in  the  human  body.  They  are  of  many  different  shapes  and  sizes  according 
to  their  work.  Some  of  the  principal  bones  are  the  skull,  jawbones,  ribs, 
collar-bones,  shoulder-blades,  and  the  bones  of  the  hands  and  arms,  legs  and 
feet. 

Bones  are  made  of    lime  and  gristle.     Some  bones  are    hollow,  and  are 
filled  with  marrow. 


THE  HEAD. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Pupils  should  examine  a  skull.     Notice  the  number  of  bones 
which  compose  it  and  the  way  they  arc   joined  ;  the  roughni 
of  the  skull  for  the  attachment  of  muscles;  the  holes  for  blood 
vessels  and  nerves  to  pass  through;  the  cavities  for  eyes,  brain  ; 
reason  for  its  shape. 

How  many  upper  jawbones  are  there?  How  many  lower  jaw- 
bones? Can  we  move  the  lower  jaw?  Can  we  move  the  upper 
jaw?     Why  is  it  useful  to  have  the  skull  rounded  in  shape  . 

What  are  the  uses  of  the  skull  and  jawbones? 

Summary. 

The  skull  is  an  oval,  bony  case  which  holds  and  protects  the  brain  and  gii  ee 
shape  to  the  head.     It  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  separate  bones,  fastened 


32  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

together  with  edges  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw.  In  children  these  bones  are  not 
fastened  firmly,  but  grow  together  as  the  child  grows  older. 

The  jawbones  are  the  bones  of  the  month  in  which  the  teeth  are  set. 
There  are  two  tipper  jawbones  an  J  one  lower  jawbone.  The  lower  jaw  is 
movable.  Bach  jaw  contains  sixteen  teeth.  The  jaws  give  shape  to  the  face, 
and  are  also  used  in  eating  and  talking. 

Pictures  and  drawings  should  be  made  to  illustrate  this  lesson. 


BONES  OF  THE  TRUNK  — THE  SPINE. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Why  is  the  trunk  so  called? 

String  together  circular  pieces  of  wood  with  pads  of  felt  be- 
tween. This  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  structure  of  the  spine. 
Consider  the  spinal  cord  and  its  uses. 

Consider  why  the  spine  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  parts  in- 
stead of  being  a  solid  bone. 

What  uses  has  the  spine  ?  Of  what  use  are  the  pads  of  gristle  ? 
The  separate  bones  can  be  felt  in  a  row  down  the  back. 

If  a  vertebra  cannot  be  obtained,  pictures  should  be  used  to 
show  shape  and  size.     This  should  be  followed  by  drawings. 

Summary. 

The  spinal  column  or  baek-bone  is  made  up  of  twenty-four  separate  bones, 
piled  one  on  another.  Between  the  bones  are  pads  of  gristle.  The  pads  are 
springy  and  prevent  the  bones  from  grating;  and  also  break  the  force  of  a 
shock  or  fall.  Each  bone  in  the  column  lias  a  hole  through  it.  The  spinal 
cord  runs  through  these  holes.  The  spinal  column  supports  the  entire  body, 
and  permits  us  to  bend  in  any  direction.     It  also  protects  the  spinal  cord. 


OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 


THE  COLLAR-BONE. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Consider  the  shape  and  use  of  the  collar-bone.  How  man? 
collar-bones  have  we?  What  is  the  collar-bone  of  a  chicken 
called?  How  does  the  wishbone  differ  in  shape  from  our  collar* 
bone  ?     What  is  the  reason  for  this  difference  ? 

Summary. 

The  collar-bones  are  fastened  to  the  breast-hone  in  front,  and  to  tlu» 
shoulder-blades.  They  are  useful  for  keeping  the  shoulders  back  and  to 
keep  them  firm  when  the  arms  are  used. 


THE  SHOULDER-BLADES. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Consider  the  number,  shape,  size,  position,  and  uses.     Pictures 
•showing  position  and  adjacent  bones  should  be  examined. 

Summary. 

The  shoulder-blades  are  the  two  large,  flat,  triangular  bones  on  the  back, 
outside  of  the  ribs.  They  are  fastened  to  the  backbone  at  the  back  and  to 
the  collar-bones  at  the  shoulders.     They  help  to  keep  the  arms  in  place  and 

to  protect  the  lungs. 


•  I 


4  OL'TLINKS    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 


THE  RIBS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Preparation  for  this  lesson  may  consist  in  the  endeavor  of  each 
pupil  to  find  out  the  number  of  ribs  in  his  own  body,  and  where 
the  ribs  arc  fastened.  Breathe  forcibly,  but  slowly,  and  note  the 
movements  of  the  ribs. 

Pictures  of  the  ribs,  to  show  the  conical  shape,  should  also  be 
examined. 

What  uses  have  the  ribs?     What  organs  are  protected  by  the 

ribs  ? 

Summary. 

The  ribs  are  the  thin,  Hat  bones  which  pass  around  the  body.  There  are 
twenty-tour  ribs,  twelve  on  each  side.  They  are  all  fastened  to  the  spinal 
column.  The  seven  upper  pairs  are  also  joined  to  the  breast-bone.  The  next 
three  pairs  are  not  joined  to  the  breast-bone,  but  each  rib  is  joined  to  the  one 
above  it  by  gristle.     The  two  lower  pairs  are  not  joined  to  anything  in  front. 

The  ribs  form  the  framework  of  the  chest  and  protect  the  heart  and  lungs. 


BONES  OF  THE  ARM  AND  HAND. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

By  examining  the  arm,  the  bones  in  the  upper  arm  and  fore- 
arm can  be  traced  by  each  pupil.  How  many  bones  are  there  in 
each  arm?  In  the  same  way  the  bones  forming  the  palm  and 
fingers  can  be  found.  Consider  also  their  number,  size,  and 
shape.     Note  the  beauty  of  the  mechanism  of  the  hand;  the  use 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  35 

of  the  thumb.     Consider  also  how  one  bone  in  the  forearm  turns 
round  the  other. 

Summary. 

The  arm  consists  of  three  parts,  —  the  upper  arm,  the  forearm,  and  the 
hand.     The  upper  arm  contains  one  large  bone.     The  forearm  contains  two 
bones.     The  hand  consists  of  three  parts,  —  wrist,  palm,  and  fingers.     Thi 
are  eight  bones  in  the  wrist,  live  in  the  palm,  three  in  each  finger,  and  two  in 
each  thumb. 

Illustrations. 


BONES  OF  THE  LEG  AND  FOOT. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

After  the  previous  lesson  pupils  can  make  preparation  for  this 
lesson  by  trying  to  ascertain  the  number  of  bones  in  the  leg  and 
foot,  by  comparison  with  the  arm  and  hand. 

What  bone  is  there  in  the  leg  to  which  there  is  no  correspond- 
ing: bone  in  the  arm  ?  What  is  its  use?  How  nianv  hone-  in 
each  foot  ?  each  toe  ?  each  leg  ? 


Summary. 

The  leg  consists  of  three  parts,  —  thigh,  lower  leg,  and  foot  The  thigh 
contains  one  bone,  which  is  the  largest  and  Btrongesl  bone  in  the  body.  The 
lower  leg  contains  two  bones.  Thekneepan  is  a  small  bone  which  protects 
the  knee  joint  and  gives  firmness  to  the  leg. 

The  foot  consists  of  four  parts,  — the  ankle  heel,  instep,  and  toes.  S<  veil 
bones  form  the  ankle  and  heel,  five  bones  form  the  instep.  Kadi  toe  has 
three  bones  except  the  great  toe,  which  has  only  two. 

Illustrations. 


36  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 


THE  JOINTS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Procure  a  joint  of  a  sheep's  leg  at  the  butcher's.  Open  the 
joint,  and  the  various  parts  may  then  be  examined.  Of  what 
use  is  the  cartilage?  the  synovial  fluid?  the  ligaments?  Why 
do  we  oil  machinery  ?  What  takes  the  place  of  oil  in  a  joint  of 
the  body? 

Name  some  joints  in  the  body.  The  movements  of  the  various 
joints  in  the  body  will  show  the  various  ways  in  which  the  joints 
are  formed,  and  the  amount  of  motion  permitted  by  each  joint. 
Consider  the  inconvenience  we  would  experience  if  we  had  no  joints. 

What  kind  of.  joint  have  we  at  the  shoulder,  elbow,  hip/ knee, 
fingers,  between  spinal  column  and  skull? 

Why  are  these  joints  so  named? 

What  kind  of  joint  fastens  the  different  parts  of  the  skull  to- 
gether ? 


Summary. 

A  joint  is  a  place  where  two  or  more  bones  are  joined.  There  art 
three  kinds  of  movable  joints,  —  ball  and  socket  joint,  hinge  joint,  and 
pivot  joint.  We  have  a  ball  and  socket  joint  at  the  shoulder  and  the  hip. 
We  have  hinge  joints  at  the  elbow,  knee,  wrist,  ankle,  and  knuckles.  The 
skull  and  spinal  column  are  joined  by  a  pivot  joint.  The  ends  of  the  bones 
in  a  joint  are  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  gristle  which  is  moistened  by  q. 
fluid .     This  makes  the  joint  move  easily. 

The  seven  bones  of  the  skull  are  joined  by  fixed  joints. 


OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY.  :J7 


THE  MUSCLES. 

Conversational  Lesson. 
The   structure  and  color  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  can  be 

« 

understood  by  examining  the  muscle  (meat)  of  other  animals. 

Consider  the  fact  that  all  muscular  action  is  the  same.  All 
muscles  contract  when  they  act,  and  draw  together  the  bones  to 
which  they  are  fastened. 

Muscles  generally  act  in  pairs.     Bend  the  elbow  joint.     Where 

is  the  muscle  that  caused  this  motion  ?     How  d  l<  I  it  act  ?    Straighten 

■ 

the  arm.     What  caused  the  action  ? 

Where  are  the  muscles  that  move  a  chicken's  foot?  How  are 
they  fastened  to  the  foot?  What  does  a  tendon  look  like  . 
Where  are  the  muscles  that  move  a  bird's  wings  V 

Are  all  muscles  the  same  size?  Whv  are  some  larger  than 
others?  Whv  are  the  muscles  of  the  arm  large  .  Whv  are  the 
muscles  of  the  eyeball  small  ? 

When  a  muscle  shortens  itself,  or  contracts,  does  it  become 
thinner  or  thicker?  Stretch  a  piece  of  rubber  and  permit  it  to 
relax.     When  is  it  thicker  ? 

Consider  how  many  muscles  are  used  in  the  simplest   move- 
ments: such  as  conveying  food  to  the  month.  Binging  a  song  from 
the   notes.     Consider  also  the   connection  between  the  muscL 
and  brain. 

How  can  the  muscles  of  the  bod  v  be  kept  in  a  healthy  con- 
dition  ? 

What  muscles  have  we  inside  of  the  body  whose  movements 
we  cannot  control  ? 


38  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY* 

Summary. 

Muscles  are  the  fleshy  part  of  the  body  just  under  the  skin.  They  are 
made  up  of  libers.  They  cover  the  skeleton  and  are  fastened  to  the  bones. 
Muscles  are  used  to  give  motion  to  the  various  parts  of  the  body.  A  muscle 
acts  by  contracting,  or  drawing  up.  When  a  muscle  contracts  it  draAvs  the 
bone  with  it.     When  it  relaxes  the  bone  goes  back  in  place. 

Muscles  sometimes  act  in  pairs.  When  one  of  these  muscles  contracts  or 
shortens  itself  the  opposite  muscle  lengthens. 

Muscles  grow  thicker  and  stronger  with  the  proper  kind  and  amount  of 
exercise. 


THE  SENSES, 

Conversational  Lesson. 

How  do  we  obtain  information  about  the  world  around 
us  ?  In  how  many  ways  do  we  get  this  knowledge  ?  What  is 
the  connection  between  these  organs  of  sense  and  the  brain? 
When  we  receive  a  single  impression  of  hearing  or  sight,  etc., 
what  is  the  effect  on  the  brain  called  ?  From  this  term  we  get 
the  word  "senses'1  because  it  is  through  the  senses  that  we  re- 
ceive  sensations. 

Why  are  the  senses  called  "  gateways  of  knowledge  "  ? 

What  kind  of  information  do  Ave  obtain  with  the  eyes  ?  the 
ears  ?  the  skin  ?  the  tongue  ?  the  nose  ?  What  protection  do  we 
owe  to  the  sense  of  touch  ? 

Of  what  special  use  are  the  tongue  and  the  nose  in  jDreserving 
the  health  of  the  body? 

Which  sense  do  we  first  learn  to  use  ? 

What  forms  the  connection  between  each  sense  organ  and  the 
brain  ? 


OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDX. 

What  do  deaf  persons  use  sometimes  to  take  the  place  of  heap- 
Lag?     What  do  blind  persons  use  to  take  the  place  of  seeing? 

Who  were  Helen  Keller  and  Laura  Bridgman?  How  many 
senses  did  they  each  have?  How  much  information  were,  they 
able  to  acquire  ? 

Information  in  reference  to  these  people,  and  also  in  reference 
to  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  can  be  found  in  many  books 
in  a  public  library. 

Summary. 

The  brain  is  the  organ  of  the  mind  by  means  of  which  every  part  of  thb 
body  is  regulated,  and  every  action  is  controlled. 

The  brain  is  protected  by  the  skull. 

The  brain  and  every  part  of  the  body  are  connected  by  nerves,  through 
which  the  brain  receives  information  of  the  condition  of  the  body,  and  also 
knowledge  in  reference  to  the  world  outside.  The  ways  in  which  the  brain 
receives  information  of  the  world  are  called  the  five  sense-,  or  five  gateways 
of  knowledge. 

Nerves  also  pass  from  the  brain  to  the  muscles  in  every  part  of  the  body, 
for  the  purpose  of  telling  them  how  to  act. 

To  be  of  use  to  us  the  brain  must  pay  strict  attention  to  the  messages  Bent 
from  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  must  remember  this  knowledge  so  as 
to  use  it  in  the  future.  The  different  organs  must  also  do  their  work  properly, 
and  attend  strictly  to  their  duties,  so  as  to  send  correct  messages  to  the  brain. 

If  we  are  looking  at  anything,  the  eye  helps  us  to  see  the  object,  and  the 
brain  helps  us  to  know  a  great  deal  about  it,  if  we  attend  carefully,  think 
about  the  object,  and  remember  what  we  have  seen  and  Learned  in  reference 
to  it.     This  is  true  of  each  of  the  five  senses. 

Close  attention  is  always  necessary.  Unless  careful  attention  is  given  by 
the  ear  to  the  sound,  and  by  the  tongue,  nostrils,  and  skin  to  their  Bpecial 
work,  the  brain  will  not  receive  exact  information,  and  it  cannot  do  it- 
work  properly.  The  more  carefully  we  attend,  the  better  will  the  brain 
do  its  work. 


40  OUT  LINKS    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

We  have  seen  that  the  skin  is  made  up  of  two  layers;  the  outer  layer 
called  tlu*  scarf  skin,  and  the  inner  layer  or  the  true  skin. 

The  true  skin  is  made  up  of  a  Dumber  of  tiny  ridges.  These  are  filled 
with  minute  blood  vessels  and  neryes. 

The  sense  of  touch  is  in  the  skin  all  oyer  the  body.  The  neryes  of  touch 
are  in  the  little  ridges  of  the  true  skin.  They  are  protected  by  the  scarf 
skin.  When  the  scarf  >kin  is  removed,  the  nerves  of  touch  are  exposed,  and 
on  this  account  pain  i-  felt. 

I J  v  this  sense  we  are  able  to  tell  whether  an  object  is  hot  or  cold, 
rough  or  smooth,  round  or  square,  hard  or  soft,  etc.  The  nerves  of  touch 
carry  to  the  brain  the  impressions  received  at  the  surface  of  the  body. 

The  -cn-e  of  taste  is  in  the  tongue.  The  nerves  of  taste  are  in  the 
little  ridges  all  over  the  tongue.  They  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  letter  V 
with  the  point  of  the  letter  towards  the  back. 

The  nerves  of  taste  receive  impressions  from  substances  placed  on  the 
tongue,  and  carrv  to  the  brain  the  information  as  to  whether  the  substance  is 
sweet,  -our.  bitter,  salt,  etc. 

The    nerves   of   smell   are   arranged   on   the  skin  which   lines   the  nostrils. 

All  odors  are  made  up  of  tiny  specks  of  floating  material.  These  are 
carried  bv  the  air  to  the  nerves  of  smell. 

* 

The  nerves  of  smell  carry  to  the  brain  information  in  reference  to  the  sub- 
stance  whose  odor  has  reached  them. 

The  senses  of  taste  and  smell  are  placed  at  the  entrances  of  the  passages  to 
the  stomach  and  lungs.  By  means  of  these  senses  we  can  guard  against 
impure  air  and  improper  food. 


OUTLINES    IX    NAT! 'UK    STUDY.  41 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EYE. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

If  possible,  dissect  in  the  class  the  eve  of  a  sheep  or  Bome 
other  animal,  and  examine  the  different  parts.  Examine  also 
pictures  of  the  eye  and  its  various  parts. 

Where  is  the  eye  placed  in  the  human  body?  Consider  its 
size,  shape,  and  the  various  ways  in  which  it  is  protected.  What 
is  the  use  of  the  bony  socket,  the  lids,  lashes,  and  eyebrows? 

How  are  the  eyes  moved?  Of  what  advantage  is  this  power? 
Can  a  fly  move  its  eyes?     What  takes  the  place  of  this  power? 

Photography  follows  the  structure  of  the  eye  in  the  use  of 
lenses,  blackened  box,  etc. 

The  use  of  the  lens  will  be  understood  by  finding  out  the  use 
of  the  lens  in  an  opera  glass.     Why  is  the  pupil  always  black? 

Find  out  the  position  and  use  of  the  cornea,  iris,  pupil,  tears, 
and  the  coats  of  the  eye. 

Compare  the  eye  of  a  human  being  with  that  of  a  cat. 

How  is  the  eye  connected  with  the  brain  ? 

Summary. 

The  eye  is  the  organ  of  sight.  It  is  a  small  hall,  about  one  inch  in  diameter. 
It  is  placed  in  the  eye-socket  and  moves  aboul  on  a  cushion  of  fat. 

The  eye-socket  is  made  of  seven  bones  in  the  form  of  a  cone.  The  eye  II 
protected  by  the  eye-socket,  eyelids,  eyelashes,  and  eyebrows. 

The  eye  has  three  coats  or  coverings.  The  outside  coat  is  hard,  so  as  to 
protect  the  delicate  parts  inside.     This  is  called  the  white  ol  the  eye. 


42  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

The  m i<ldle  coat  is  filled  with  blood  vessels  and  nerves,  and  is  black  on 
the  inside. 

The  inner  coat  is  the  most  important  of  all,  because  it  is  made  up  of  a 
network  of  nerves  which  are  connected  with  the  brain  by  means  of  the  nerve 
of  sight 

These  three  coats  cover  the  entire  eyeball,  except  the  anterior,  or  front, 
part.  The  cornea  covers  the  front  part  of  the  eye.  Inside  of  the  cornea 
i^  the  iris,  which  gives  color  to  the  eye.  In  the  iris  is  the  pupil,  which  regu- 
lates the  amount  of  light  entering  the  eye. 

The  eye  has  two  cavities  or  chambers  separated  by  a  transparent  circular 
lens. 

The  nerve  of  sight  passes  from  the  inside  of  the  eye  through  an  opening 
in  the  eve  and  the  eve-socket  to  the  brain. 

The  light  passes  through  the  cornea,  pupil,  and  lens,  and  strikes  the  nerves 
spread  out  on  the  inside  of  the  eye.  The  nerve  of  sight  carries  the  impres- 
sion to  the  brain  and  then  we  know  that  we  see. 


CARE  OF  THE  EYES. 

Conversational  Lesson. 
What  is  the  reason  for  each  of  the  following  statements  ? 


Summary. 

We  should  not  use  the  eyes  in  a  dim  light.  The  eyes  should  not  be  used 
too  long  at  a  time.  Reading  when  lying  down  is  very  injurious  to  the  sight. 
We  should  never  read  m  a  moving  car  or  a  rocking-chair. 

The  eyes  should  be  given  the  aid  of  the  proper  kind  of  glasses  as  soon  as 
they  begin  to  fail  in  any  way. 


OUTLINES    IN    NATUBB    STUDY.  1.; 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EAR. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Pictures  and  drawings  of  the  various  parts  of  the  ear  should 
accompany  the  consideration  of  this  subject. 

What  is  the  proper  name  for  thai  part  of  the  body  usually 
called  the  ear?  Of  what  is  this  made?  Could  we  bear  if  this 
were  removed?  Of  what  use  is  it?  Hold  a  shell  to  the  ear,  and 
see  how  much  more  sound  is  collected. 

What  causes  the  sounds  that  we  hear?  What  is  meant  by 
"  vibrations  "  ? 

What  is  the  use  of  hairs  and  earwax  in  the  ear  ? 

What  is  the  drum  of  the  ear?  Why  is  it  so  called?  What 
would  happen  if  all  the  air  were  removed  from  the  inside  of  the 
musical  instrument  called  the  drum? 

What  is  the  use  of  the  opening  which  passes  from  the  throat 
to  the  ear  ? 

Of  what  use  is  the  ear  ? 

Consider  the  value  of  the  brain  in  reference  not  only  i<>  hear- 
inff,  but  in  reference  to  remembering  things  that  we  bave  beard 
before,  and  connecting  them  with  things  tli.it  we  bear  later,  and 
the  amount  of  knowledge  obtained  by  this  means.  Hearing  a 
person  speak  in  a  foreign  language  does  not  give  us  any  informa- 
tion; why?  What  is  the  use  of  the  brain  in  reference  to  this 
point  ? 

Summary. 

The  ear  is  the  organ  of  hearing.     It  is  divided  into  three  parts,  —  the 

outer  ear,  the  middle  ear,  and  the  inner  ear. 


44  OUTLINES    IX    NATUBE    STUDY. 

The  outer  ear  consists  of  a  broad  plate  of  gristle,  shaped  somewhat  like 
a  shell,  and  of  a  tube  about  one  inch  long.  The  tube  is  protected  by  earwax, 
and  by  a  set  of  fine  hairs.  These  are  used  to  moisten  the  ear,  catch  floating 
dust,  and  keep  away  small  insects. 

The  middle  ear  is  called  the  drum  of  the  ear.  Between  the  middle  ear  and 
outer  ear  i^  a  thin  skin  called  the  membrane  of  the  drum.  It  is  very  delicate, 
and  it  it  i-  once  broken,  it  cannot  be  repaired,  and  deafness  will  follow. 

In  the  drum  of  the  ear  are  three  little  bones,  the  smallest  in  the  body.  An 
air  passage  le:id>  from  the  throat  to  the  drum  of  the  ear. 

The  inner  ear  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  winding  passages  cut  through 
the  skull  to  the  brain.  These  passages  are  lined  with  a  thin  skin  on  which 
the  nerve  of  hearing  is  spread  out.  Inside  of  this  skin  is  a  watery  fluid  in 
which  float  tiny  grains  of  sand. 

Waves  of  sound  are  collected  by  the  outer  ear  and  pass  to  the  membrane 
of  the  drum,  causing  it  to  vibrate.  When  this  membrane  vibrates,  it  causes 
the  three  little  bones  in  the  middle  ear  to  vibrate.  This  causes  the  fluid 
in  the  inner  ear  to  wash  the  tiny  grains  of  sand  against  the  nerve  of  hear- 
big;  the  nerve  of  hearing  carries  this  impression  to  the  brain,  and  we  know 
that  we  hear  a  sound. 


CARE  OF  THE  EAR. 

Conversational  Lesson. 
What  is  the  reason  for  each  of  the  following  statements  ? 

Summary. 

We  should  never  use  earpicks  of  any  kind,  but  the  ear  should  be  washed 
gentlv  with  warm  water.  A  loud  noise  close  to  the  ear  is  dangerous  because 
it  may  break  the  membrane  of  the  drum  and  cause  deafness.  The  side  of 
the  head  should  never  be  struck,  nor  the  ear  pulled,  as  either  may  injure  the 
hearing. 


III.     ANIMALS. 


THE  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  USES. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Name  a  number  of  different  animals. 

What  is  an  animal  ? 

Name  some  domestic  animals. 

What  is  a  domestic  animal  ? 

Examine  as  many  live  domestic  animals  as  possible. 

Name  some  beasts  that  are  domestic  animals. 

Name  some  birds  that  are  domestic  animals. 

What  wild  animal  does  each  of  our  domestic  animals  resembl 

In  how  many  ways  are  domestic  animals  ot  use  t<>  us 

Tell  all  the  different  kinds  of  food  with  which  these  animals 
furnish  us. 

Which  of  these  animals  are  of  value  on  account  of  their  cover- 
ing? their  hoofs?  their  horns?  Which  are  useful  for  carrying 
heavy  loads?     Which  protect  us  againsl  other  animals  . 

Which  of  these  animals  furnish  us  with  the   following  articL 
or  with  materials  for  their  manufacture.  —  veal,  mutton,  milk, < 
beef,  tripe,  haircloth,  glue,  feathers,  horns,  woolen  cloth,  etc.! 

Of  all  the  domestic  animals,  which  is  the  most  intelligent  V  I  >i 
all  animals,  which  is  the  most  intelligent?  Why?  What 
domestic  animals  do  people  in  other  countries  have   that    we  do 

45 


40  OUTLINES   IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

not  have?  Of  what  use  are  the  camel,  elephant,  ostrich,  stork, 
etc.? 

The  hoofs,  horns,  bones,  etc.,  of  many  of  our  domestic  animals 
can  be  obtained  for  close  observation. 

In  any  public  library  Avill  be  found  many  books  containing 
stories  of  these  animals,  their  traits  of  character,  and  the  uses  to 
which  they  are  put  by  people  in  other  countries. 

Look  at  the  feet,  horns,  bills,  and  teeth  of  these  animals,  and 
make  drawings  of  them. 

Summary. 

An  animal  is  any  living  tiling  that  has  feeling  and  the  power  of  voluntary 
motion,  —  that  is,  that  can  make  a  movement  when  it  wishes. 

Domestic  animals  are  those  that   live  with  man  and  are  useful  to  him. 

Some  domestic  animals  are  the  horse,  cow,  sheep,  dog,  cat,  chicken,  duck, 
goose,  and  turkey. 


THE  HORSE. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

To  what  class  of  animals  does  the  horse  belong?  Which  wild 
animal  docs  the  horse  resemble  ?  How  is  the  horse  useful  to  man? 
Why  does  the  horse  have  large  and  strong  bones  and  muscles? 

Describe  the  hoof  of  a  horse.  Why  is  the  horse  shod?  What 
is  the  shape  of  the  shoe?  Who  makes  the  shoe  and  puts  it  on? 
How  is  it  fastened? 

On  what  part  of  the  foot  does  the  horse  walk? 

Of  what  does  the  food  of  the  horse  consist? 

What  kind  of  teeth  has  the  horse  ? 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  -17 

What  movement  have  the  jaws  of   a  horse  in  chewing   his 

food? 

For  what  does  the  horse  use  its  lips  in  eating?  Of  what  use 
to  a  horse  is  its  tail  ?  its  mane  ? 

Of  what  use  to  man  are  the  horse's  hoofs,  hones,  hide,  tail, 
and  mane  ? 

Summary. 

The  horse  is  useful  to  man  as  a  beast  of  burden.  Its  feet  are  fitted  to  walk 
on  firm  ground.  The  toe-nail  of  the  horse  grows  in  such  a  way  a-  i<> 
form  hard,  firm  hoofs,  on  which  he  walks.  To  this  horny  hoof  is  nailed  an 
iron  shoe,  which  protects  the  hoof  against  the  wear  of  travel. 

The  horse  is  fond  of  grass,  hay,  corn,  and  oats,  which  it  grinds  between  it- 
teeth.  Its  front  teeth  are  sharp  for  cutting.  Its  lips  and  teeth  are  formed 
for  eatino;  the  shortest  2;rass. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  intelligent  animals.  It  is  faithful  and  affectionate  t«> 
its  master,  and  will  patiently  endure  long  hours  of  toil  and  hardship,  until  \\< 
strength  gives  out.     It  often  sleeps  standing. 

The  hide  of  the  horse  is  used  in  making  leather.  The  hair  i<  used  in 
making  plaster.  Haircloth  is  made  from  the  mane  and  tail.  The  bones  and 
hoofs  are  used  in  making  glue,  and  material  for  fertilizing  the  ground. 


THE  COW. 

Conversational  Lesson. 


In  how  many  ways  is  the  cow  useful  to  us  ?  How  many  kinds 
of  food  do  we  obtain  from  the  cow?  What  is  meant  by  milk 
foods  ?     Name  some  milk  foods. 

What  is  tripe?     What  other  parts  of  the  cow  do  we  use  foi 


48  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

food  ?  What  use  do  we  make  of  the  cow's  bones  ?  How  do  we 
use  the  hide  ?  the  hair  ?  the  horns  ?  the  hoofs  ? 

What  kind  of  food  does  the  cow  eat  ?     How  many  stomachs 

t/ 

has  the  cow?  Of  what  use  are  the  first  two  stomachs?  Why 
is  the  cow  a  cud-chewer  ? 

What  kind  of  teeth  have  cud-chewers  ?  Which  teeth  has  a 
horse  that  a  cow  has  not?  What  is  the  difference  between  the 
hoof  of  a  horse  and  that  of  an  ox  ?  How  many  shoes  does  an 
ox  wear?  What  means  of  defense  has  a  cow  that  ahorse  has 
not  ? 

Of  what  use  to  the  cow  are  its  horns  ?  What  differences  are 
there  between  the  horns  of  a  cow  and  those  of  a  stag  ?  What 
difference  is  there  between  the  tail  of  a  horse  and  that  of  a  cow  ? 
What  wild  animal  does  the  cow  resemble  ? 


Summary. 
Bovines  mav  be  divided  into  several  classes  which  are  useful  to  man  in 

m 

different  ways.  Some  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden.  These  are  called  oxen. 
Others  are  useful  for  providing  us  faith  beef,  veal,  tripe,  and  milk  foods.  The 
hide  of  the  cow  and  ox  is  useful  in  making  leather.  The  hair  is  needed  in 
making  plaster,  (due  is  made  from  the  hoofs.  Knife  handles,  umbrella 
handles,  and  buttons  are  made  from  the  horns. 

The  cow  is  a  cud-chewer  and  is  fond  of  grass  and  hay.  When  a  cow  first 
swallows  the  food  it  passes  to  a  large  stomach,  where  it  is  well  moistened; 
then  into  a  second  stomach,  where  it  is  rolled  into  balls.  These  form  the  cud 
which  passes  back  to  the  mouth  to  be  chewed.  After  it  is  well  chewed  it 
goes  to  the  other  stomachs  to  be  further  prepared  for  use  in  the  body.  The 
cow  uses  its  tongue  to  place  the  food  in  its  mouth. 

The  horns  of  the  cow  are  round  and  hollow,  with  bone  inside.  They  are 
used  by  the  cow  for  defending  itself  against  its  enemies. 


OUTLINES    IN    N ATI   i:i:    STUDY.  19 


THE  SHEEP. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

In  how  many  ways  is  the  sheep  useful  to  us  '  For  whit  pur- 
pose do  we  use  its  wool  ?  With  whit  food  does  the  sheep  Bupply 
ns?  For  what  is  its  fat  used?  In  whal  countries  is  its  skin 
made  into  wine  hottles  ? 

What  is  meant  by  a  flock  or  herd".'  What  name  is  given  to 
the  man  who  looks  after  the  sheep  ? 

What  kind  of  food  does  the  sheep  prefer  V  In  regard  to  eat- 
'ng,  does  the  sheep  resemhle  the  cow  or  the  horse?  \n  wh.it 
,ther  ways  does  the  sheep  resemble  the  cow  V 

Is  the  sheep  fitted  to  live  in  hot  or  cold  countries  V  Why  do 
vou  think  so  ?  Over  what  kind  of  land  is  it  particularly  fitted  to 
,ravel  ? 


Summary. 

The  sheep  is  useful  to  man  in  furnishing  wool  for  clothing  and  mutton  I 
food.     From  its  fat,  talknv  is  made.     Its  skin   is  made  into  rags,  parchment, 

and  leather. 

Sheep  are  cud-chewers  and  are  fond   of  green    grass  or  hay. 
generally  kept  in  flocks,  and  in  each  flock  there  is  a  Leader.     Th 
driven  by  a  shepherd  or  a  dog,  and  the  resl   of  the  flock  follow.     Sheep  are 
very  timid  and  unable  to  take  can'  of  themselves. 

They  are  good  climbers,  and  are  found  frequently  in  mountainous  count 


60  OUTLINES    IN    i^ATUBB    STUDY. 


THE  DOG. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Of  what  use  is  the  dog  to  mankind  ?  In  what  part  of  the 
world  does  it  do  the  work  of  a  horse  ?  Why  are  not  horses 
used  in  those  countries  ?  Of  what  use  is  the  dog  in  sheep-raising 
districts  ?  Which  of  the  five  senses  are  highly  developed  in  the 
dog'  ? 

What  kind  of  food  does  the  dog  prefer  ?  What  kind  of  teeth 
has  it  ?  Why  does  the  dog  gnaw  a  hone  ?  What  does  it  do  with 
a  bone  that  it  no  longer  wishes  to  gnaw  ?  Of  what  uses  are  the 
claws  of  a  dog?  What  peculiarity  have  a  cat's  claws  that  a  dog's 
do  not  possess  ? 

How  do  dogs  vary  in  size,  covering  and  traits  of  character? 
What  wild  animal  does  the  dog  resemble  ? 

In  any  public  library  will  be  found  books  containing  stories  of 
dogs  and  the  different  uses  to  which  they  are  put  in  different 
countries. 

Summary. 

The  dog  is  useful  to  protect  man  and  warn  him  of  the  approach  of  danger. 
It  also  destroys  rats  and  mice.  Some  kinds  of  dogs  are  useful  in  hunting. 
In  cold  countries  dogs  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden,  and  are  harnessed  to 
sledges.  One  kind  of  dog  is  useful  in  driving  sheep.  Some  dogs  are  very 
intelligent  and  can  be  trained  to  do  many  things. 

Dogs  have  very  keen  senses  of  smell,  sight,  and  hearing.  They  eat  many 
things  that  we  do,  but  prefer  raw  meat.  Dogs  drink  water  by  lapping  it  with 
the  tongue.     They  are  faithful  to  people  that  are  kind  to  them. 


OUTLINES   IN    NATURE    STUDY.  51 


THE  CAT. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Describe  the  coat  or  covering  of  the  cat.  How  many  feel  has 
the  cat?  How  many  toes  has  the  cat  on  each  of  its  fore  ]»;iw 
On  each  of  its  hind  paws?  What  peculiar  power  docs  the  cal 
possess  in  reference  to  its  claws  ?  For  what  purposes  does  the  cat 
use  its  claws?  Of  what  three  uses  are  the  cushions  or  pads  on 
the  cat's  paws?  What  peculiarity  have  the  eves  of  the  cat? 
What  does  this  indicate  ?  Do  all  animals  that  wander  at  night 
have  eyes  fitted  to  see  in  the  dark?  What  peculiarity  has  the 
tongue  of  the  cat?  How  does  it  drink?  For  what  other  pur- 
pose than  eating  and  drinking  does  the  cat  use  its  tongue? 
What  kind  of  teeth  has  the  cat?  Are  its  teeth  all  alike  '.'  Why 
does  it  need  teeth  of  that  character?  Do  all  animals  that  feed 
on  flesh  or  meat  have  that  kind  of  teeth?  Of  what  use  are  the 
cat's  whiskers?  How  does  the  cat  act  when  it  is  watching 
and  catching  its  prey?  How  does  it  resemble  the  tiger  in  this 
respect?  What  is  the  difference  in  the  coverings  of  a  cat  and  a 
dog?  Why  has  the  cat  so  soft  a  covering?  Of  what  use  to  us 
is  the  cat  ? 

Summary. 

The  cat  is  useful  to  protect  us  against  rats  and  mice.  The  cat  is  covered 
with  fur.  The  paws  of  the  cat  are  supplied  with  claws,  which  are  used  for 
climbing,  for  holding  a  bird  or  a  mouse,  and  for  defending  itself  against  it** 
enemies.  The  claws  can  be  sheathed  when  they  air  not  in  use,  and  do  uot 
touch  the  ground  in  walking. 


52  OUTLINES    IN    NATUEB    STUDY. 

The  cushions  on  a  cat's  paws  cover  its  claws,  permit  it  to  walk  silently,  and 
prevent  it  from  being  jarred  in  jumping. 

When  trying  to  catch  its  prey,  it  creeps  along  and  crouches  before  spring- 
ing on  it.     It  teases  its  victim  usually  before  killing  it. 

The  cat  eats  many  foods  that  we  do,  but  it  prefers  raw  meat.  It  is  fond  of 
milk,  and  when  drinking  laps  the  liquid  with  its  tongue.  The  mouth 
extends  far  back,  so  that  it  can  use  the  tearing  teeth  easily. 


BIRDS  THAT  ARE  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Name  some  birds  that  are  domestic  animals.  Why  are  they 
called  domestic  animals  ?  Of  what  nse  to  man  are  the  chicken, 
turkey,  duck,  and  goose?  With  what  kinds  of  food  do  these 
animals  supply  us  ? 

How  does  each  of  these  animals  move  about  from  place  to 
place  ?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  feet  of  those  that  swim 
and  those  that  do  not?  Whv  do  ducks  need  to  be  fitted  for 
swimming  ?     Why  do  chickens  have  claws  for  scratching  ? 

How  many  toes  has  each  of  these  fowls  ?  Where  are  the  le^s 
of  each  fastened  to  the  body?  Where  are  the  muscles  that 
move  a  fowl's  feet  ?  How  are  these  fastened  to  the  claws  ? 
What  does  a  tendon  look  like  ? 

What  shaped  bill  has  each  of  these  fowls?  What  kind  of  food 
does  each  of  them  eat?  Why  is  the  bill  of  a  duck  supplied  with 
nerves  and  saw-like  edges  on  the  inside?  How  do  fowls  drink? 
Have  fowls  teeth  ?     Of  what  use  is  the  gizzard  to  birds  ? 

How  are  these  fowls  covered  ?  Which  of  them  has  the  lightest 
and  softest  feathers  ?     Which  has  very  oily  feathers  ?     Why  are 


OUTLINES    IN    NATUEE    STIUV. 

the  feathers  of  the  cluck  supplied  with  more  «>il  than   those  of 
other  fowls  ? 

How  do  the  head  and  neck  of  a  turkey  differ  from   those  of 

other  fowls  ? 

Which  of  the  domestic  fowls  desert  the  young  bird* 

The  head  and  feet  of  these  fowls  are  easily  obtained   lor  the 

purpose  of  examining  them.     If  possible,  observe  the  fowl  alii 

and  notice  its  various  habits. 


Summary. 

Some  fowls  of  the  barnyard  are  the  chicken,  turkey,  •_:'<  >■>-«■.  and  'luck. 
These  animals  are  useful  to  us  on  account  of  their  feathers  and  their  flesh. 
They  also  supply  us  with  eggs. 

These  animals  all  walk  on  land,  but  ducks  and  geese  can  swim.  The  birds 
that  swim  are  web-footed. 

Ducks  obtain  much  of  then  food  from  the  bottom  of  stream-  bv  discing 
for  it.  They  eat  worms,  frogs,  tadpoles,  and  fish,  a-  well  as  grain.  When  a 
duck  wishes  to  capture  some  creature  for  food,  it  dives  under  the  water.  Ii 
passes  the  mud  and  water  out  between  the  saw-like  edges  "t'  it-  bill,  and  re- 
tains the  food. 

The  goose  in  swimming  does  not  dive  under  water  like  the  duck,  but  it 
thrusts  its  head  and  neck  into  the  water  while  it  i-  using  it-  bill.  The 
feathers  of  the  goose  are  the  best  for  pillows,  because  they  are  bo  light  and 
soft. 

Chickens  scratch  much  of  their  food  from  the  ground.  They  eat  bugs, 
worms,  and  grain.  When  a  worm  is  too  large  i"  eat  the  chicken  tears  it  up 
with  its  claws  and  bill. 

The  turkey  can  run  very  fast  because  it  has  such  long  legs.  The  feet  are 
partly  webbed,  so  that  it  can  swim  a  little.  It  has  no  feathers  en  it-  head  and 
neck.     Turkeys  eat  grain,  nuts,  and  insects  of  various  kinds. 

Ducks  and  geese  roost  low,  chickens  and  turkeys  roost  high. 


54  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 


MOVEMENTS  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Mention  some  animals  that  move  by  walking. 

Mention  some  animals  that  move  by  living. 

Mention  some  animals  that  move  by  swimming. 

Mention  some  animals  that  wade. 

Name  some  animals  that  can  move  in  each  of  the  first  three 
wavs. 

Are  the  bones  of  the  horse's  leg  large  or  small  ?  Why  ?  Why 
must  the  muscles  that  move  the  le^  of  the  horse  be  large  and 
strong  ?  When  a  four-footed  domestic  animal  walks,  which  leus 
move  at  the  same  time  ? 

Where  are  the  muscles  that  move  a  chicken's  claws?  How 
are  they  fastened  to  the  bone?  Which  of  the  barnyard  fowls 
walk  the  most  awkwardly  ?  Which  can  run  the  fastest  ?  How 
may  the  wings  be  compared  to  the  sails  of  a  boat,  when  one  of 
these  birds  runs  ?     Why  cannot  these  birds  fly  well  ? 

Which  parts  of  the  body  must  be  strong  in  animals  that  walk  ? 
In  those  that  fly  ?     In  those  that  swim  ? 

Do  all  animals  use  the  same  organs  in  swimming  ?  What  part 
of  the  body  does  the  duck  use?  Why  cannot  beasts  and  human 
beimrs  swim  for  so  lonir  a  time  as  fish  or  ducks?  What  is  the 
difference  in  position  between  the  legs  of  a  duck  and  those  of  a 
chicken  ?  Why  are  a  duck's  so  placed  ?  What  must  all  swim- 
mers do  in  order  to  advance  through  the  water? 

Compare   the  size   of  a  sparrow's  wings  with  the  size  of  its 


.OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  00 

body.     Examine  a  pigeon  or  a  chicken  in  the  same  way.      Why 
cannot  a  chicken  fly  to  any  great  heighl  ? 

What  must  birds  do  in  flying  in  order  to  advance  through  the 
air?     Why  cannot  we  fly?     Where  are  the  muscles  thai    move 

the  wings?     Why  can  wild  ducks  llv  farther  than  tame  one* 

A  fan  that  is  somewhat  scoop-shaped  may  be  used  to  illustrate 
how  a  bird's  wing  pushes  the  air  down. 

•  What  is  the  difference  between  walking  and  wading  What 
kind  of  legs  are  necessary  to  a  wading  bird  '!  Whal  kind  of  feel  V 
Why  do  these  birds  wade  ? 

Consider  the  fact  that  organs  are  given  to  animals  as  they  are 
needed  for  moving  about,  obtaining  food,  defense,  etc     Tin 
organs  develop  with  use,  but  become  weak  and  small,  and  finally 
disappear  if    they  are    not    used.       Name    some  animals  which 

illustrate  this. 

All  of  these  animals  or  pictures  of  them  should  be  examined  in 
connection  with  the  consideration  of  the  subject. 

Summary. 

Animals  that  walk  have  strong  bones  and  muscles  1-  form  the  Legs.     Th< 
form  a  support  to  the  body.     The  muscles  are  fastened  to  the  bones  in  rach 
a  way  that  they  bend  the  legs  and  cause  the  body  to  move  forward. 

When  a  bird  flies,  it  opens  its  wings  in  a  rounded  Bhape  and  raises  them 
in   the    air.      As  the  wings  are  raised  the  edges  cut   the    air.     The   under 
side  of  the  wing  is  hollow,  and  holds  a  large  quantity  of  air.     The  feath 
are   lapped    so   that    the   air    cannot    escape.      The    bird    pushes    the     air 
back  and  down  with  its  wings  and  thus  raises  its  body  and  moves  forward 
The  bird  keeps  moving  its  wings  in  this  way  by  means  of  its  breast  muse 
and  thus  forces  its  way  through  the  air.     The  breast-bone  of  a  bird  hi 
ridge  down  the  center,  forming  two  large,  hollow  places  for  the-  attachment 
of  the  large  breast  muscles. 


5G  OUTLINES    IN    NATUKE    STUDY. 

The  wings  of  all  birds  that  fly  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  their  bodies. 
AVheii  the  wines  of  a  bird  are  too  small,  it  cannot  fly  well.  If  the  breast- 
bone  of  a  bird  is  flat,  the  breast  muscles  will  not  be  sufficiently  large  to  move 
the  wings.  Birds  arc  supplied  with  wings  so  that  they  can  escape  from  their 
pursuers. 

An  animal  that  swims  forces  its  way  through  the  water  in  the  same  way 
that  a  bird  forces  its  way  through  the  air.  Fishes  push  the  water  back  with 
their  fins. 

.V  bird  that  swims  is  web-footed.  The  bird  pushes  the  water  back  with  its 
feet  and  thus  sends  the  body  forward. 

When  a  duck  thrusts  its  foot  forward  in  swimming,  it  folds  it  together  so 
as  to  pass  through  the  water  easily.  When  it  is  ready  to  push  it  back  again,, 
it  spreads  the  foot  out  in  a  sort  of  scoop-shape,  so  as  to  force  back  as  much 
water  as  possible. 

Eorses  and  many  other  animals  can  swim  short  distances,  but  this  is  not 
the  usual  way  in  which  they  move  from  place  to  place.  These  animals  cannot 
swim  well  because  they  cannot  push  away  enough  water  to  move  the  body 
forward  rapidly.  The  muscles  are  not  strong  enough  for  this  work,  and  they 
soon  become  tired. 

Animals  are  supplied  with  organs  for  swimming  so  as  to  obtain  the  kind  of 
food  which  they  need  and  also  to  escape  from  danger. 

Some  birds,  such  as  the  stork,  heron,  sandpiper,  and  crane,  are  fitted  not 
only  to  fly  and  walk,  but  also  to  wade.  For  this  purpose  the  legs  are  long 
and  the  feet  have  straight,  long,  flat  toes,  upon  which  the  bird  can  stand  firmly 
in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  a  stream.  Tliev  also  have  Ions;  necks  and  bills. 
They  wade  into  the  water  and  stand  quite  still,  with  the  toes  spread  to  avoid 
sinking  in  the  mud.  Then,  as  fish  and  frogs  swim  about  the  bird's  legs,  it 
bends  its  Long  neck  down  quickly  and  catches  the  animal,  which  goes  down 
its  long  throat  whole. 

All  movement  of  animals  i>  caused  by  the  contraction  of  muscles.  Muscles 
that  are  used  frequently  become  thicker  and  stronger  and  better  able  to  do 
then-  special  work. 


OUTLINES   IN   NATTTBB   STUDY.  oT 


THE  SKELETONS  OF  ANIMALS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Examine  the  hones  of  as  many  animals  as  possible.     If  p 
sible,  obtain  all   the  bones  of    some   animal   and  wire  them  to- 
gether in  the  proper  places. 

In  any  public  library  will  be  found  books  containing  pictures 
of  the  skeletons  of  animals.  At  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences, 
Philadelphia,  can  be  seen  skeletons  of  many  different  kinds  of 
animals. 

In  which  class  of  animals  are  the  bones  most  easily  bent? 
Why?     Why  are  bones  of  this  kind  of  use  to  fish? 

Which  animals  have  the  heaviest  bones?  Whv  do  they  Deed 
such  large,  strong  hones  ? 

What  jDeculiarity  have  the  bones  of  birds  ?     Of  what  advanta 
is  this?     Why  do  birds  need  bones  that  are  light  ? 

The  backbones  and  ribs  of  a  cat  or  a  dog  can  often  be  fell  on 
the  surface  of  the  body.  Compare  the  backbone  and  ribs  of 
beasts,  birds,  and  reptiles. 

Which    animals   have    the    most   looselv    jointed    backbones 
Which  animals  have  a  backbone  in  which  ihe  vertebrae  or  bones 
forming:    it    are    firmlv  mined?      What    is    the    reason    for    the 
peculiar  formation  in  each  case  ? 

Compare  the  skulls  and  ribs  of  different  animals  as  to  size  and 

shape. 

Which  animals  have  the  most  prominent  breastrbone?  Why 
do  birds  need  a  breast-bone  of  this  kind?     Why  docs   a  wood- 


58  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

pecker  or  a  parrot  have  a  flatter  breast-bone  than  other  birds  ? 
Whv  cannot  the  ostrich  fly  ? 

What  name  is  sometimes  given  to  the  collar-bone  of  a  bird? 
to  the  fore  leg  of  a  chicken?  How  many  collar-bones  has  a 
bird?  How  many  hay e  we?  Compare  the  jawbones  of  beasts 
with  those  of  human  beings.  Why  do  we  not  need  such  strong 
jawbones  or  such  large  teeth  as  beasts  ?  Which  animals  have 
no  teeth  ? 

What  organ  in  a  bird  takes  the  place  of  teeth  in  grinding  up 
the  food? 

How  many  kinds  of  teeth  have  we  ?  Of  what  use  is  each 
kind  ?  Name  some  animals  that  have  teeth  for  cutting  and 
gnawing  ;  for  tearing ;  for  grinding.  What  kind  of  food  does 
each  of  these  animals  eat  ?     Of  what  use  are  teeth  to  snakes  ? 

To  what  parts  of  our  body  do  the  fore  legs  of  a  beast  corre- 
spond ?  the  hind  legs  ?  Compare  the  fore  leg  of  a  beast  to  the 
arm  of  man,  and  find  the  joints  that  correspond  to  the  wrist  and 
elbow.  Also  compare  the  hind  leg  of  a  beast  with  the  leg  of 
man,  and  find  the  corresponding  joints. 

How  many  toes  has  the  dog?  the  cat?  the  horse?  the  pig? 
the  cow  ?  the  bear  ?  the  monkey  ?  Have  the  fore  legs  the  same 
number  of  toes  as  the  hind  letrs  ? 

On  what  does  each  of  these  animals  walk  ?  Which  walk  on 
the  toe-nails  ?  on  the  toes  ?  on  the  whole  foot  ?  on  the  four  feet  ? 

Which  beast  has  four  thumbs?  Of  what  advantage  to  us  is 
the  thumb  ? 

To  what  part  of  our  body  does  the  wing  of  a  chicken  corre- 
spond ?  Examine  the  bones  in  the  wing,  and  find  the  bones  and 
joints  which  correspond  to  the  bones  and  joints  of  the  arm  and 
hand.. 


OUTLINES   IN    NATURE    STUDY.  5'J 

In  what  direction  does  the  knee  joint  always  bend?     Where 

is  a  bird's  knee  joint?  To  what  joint  in  man  docs  the  first  joint 
from  the  toes  in  a  bird  correspond?  On  what  docs  a  bird  gen- 
erally walk  ? 

At  the  Zoological  Garden  many  beasts,  birds,  and  reptiles  can 
be  seen.  Careful  observation  will  give  much  information  in 
reference  to  the  formation  of  their  skeletons. 


Summary. 

The  skeleton  of  an  animal  is  of  such  a  size,  shape,  weight,  and  arrange- 
ment as  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  animal  and  the  conditions  of  its  existence. 

Some  beasts  need  large,  heavy  bones  for  the  attachment  of  strong  muscles. 
Birds  need  bones  that  are -light  in  weight.  For  this  reason  their  bones  are 
hollow  and  are  filled  with  ah.  Snakes  need  bones  that  can  be  quickly  moved 
This  power  is  obtained  by  means  of  very  loose  joints.  Most  of  the  bones  of 
fish  are  soft  and  flexible,  so  that  they  are  easily  bent.  The  bones  of  be 
are  much  heavier  and  stronger  than  those  of  human  beings. 

Every  animal  that  has  a  skeleton  inside  of  the  body  is  supplied  with  a  back- 
bone. Most  animals  that  have  backbones  are  supplied  with  tour  Limbs.  In 
human  beings  these  consist  of  two  arms  and  two  legs.  Beasts  have  four  le 
Birds  have  two  wings  and  two  legs.  Fish  have  two  pairs  of  tins  which  cor- 
respond roughly  to  the  limbs  of  other  animals.  The  tortoise  and  the  crocodile 
have  four  legs.  Some  lizards  have  four  legs  and  some  have  two  Legs,  -  >me 
lizards  and  snakes  have  no  legs. 

The  ribs  of  animals  that  feed  on  grass  and  grain  form  a   foundation   for  a 
large,  heavy  body.     These  also  have  a  long,  narrow  skull. 

The  ribs  of  animals  that  feed  on  flesh  form  a  Blender  body,  as  they  q< 
to  move  quickly  in  seeking  their  prey.     The  skull  of  these  animals  is  br< 
and  short.     Beasts  of  prey  need  large,  strong  bones  in   the  fore   Legs  and 
shoulders.     The  backbone  of  animals  that  crouch  is  so  arranged  that   it  is 
very  flexible  and  can  be  bent  and  twisted  in  almost  any  direction. 

The  jawbones  of  beasts  are  heavier  and  stronger  than  those  ^i  man.     Afl 


60  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

man  uses  knives  and  forks  to  assist  him  in  cutting  his  food,  he  does  not  need 
the  large  jawbones  for  this  purpose.  Neither  does  he  need  them  as  a  means 
of  defense. 

Some  animals,  such  as  the  bear,  Cape  ant-eater,  sea-lion,  etc.,  walk  on  four 
feet.  Most  animals  walk  on  their  toes  or  toe-nails,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
foot  between  the  toes  and  ankle  consists  of  one  long  bone.  This  is  of  use 
in  supporting  the  weight  of  the  body  and  allowing  the  animal  to  move  more 
lightly  and  quickly. 

The  toes  of  some  beasts  are  supplied  with  claws.  Their  feet  are  called 
paws.  The  toe-nails  of  others  cover  and  protect  the  toes,  and  these  are  called 
hoofs. 

The  arrangement  of  the  bones  and  joints  in  the  hand  of  man  which  per- 
mits freedom  of  motion  to  the  thumb  is  of  great  advantage. 

In  a  bird  the  bones  forming  the  backbone  between  the  neck  and  tail  are 
firmly  joined.  The  skull  and  backbone  are  so  joined  that  the  head  can  be 
turned  almost  completely  round.  In  man  and  beasts  these  are  so  joined  that 
the  head  can  be  turned  from  side  to  side  and  can  be  moved  or  nodded 
forward  and  back. 

The  breast-bone  of  man  is  flat,  but  a  bird  has  a  keel-shaped  breast-bone, 
with  a  ridge  of  bone  down  the  center.  This  forms  large,  hollow  places  for 
the  attachment  of  the  huge  muscles  which  move  the  wings. 

The  lower  jaw  of  a  bird  is  joined  to  the  skull  by  means  of  a  small  bone. 
This  permits  the  jaws  to  be  opened  very  wide.     Reptiles  also  haA-e  this  bone. 

The  two  collar-bones  of  human  beings  are  placed  end  to  end  and  fastened 
to  the  top  of  the  breast-bone.  These  are  used  for  holding  the  shoulders  back 
in  place.  The  collar-bones  of  a  bird  are  fastened  together,  forming  one  bone 
of  a  rounded  V  shape.  This  rests  against  the  ridge  of  the  breast-bone  and 
the  ends  support  the  large  bones  of  the  wings. 

The  bones  of  the  Iclts  are  almost  entirely  covered  by  muscles  and  feathers, 
so  that  the  knee  is  out  of  sight.  Birds  walk  on  their  toes,  except  the  adju- 
tant bird,  or  marabout.  One  bone  forms  that  part  of  a  bird's  foot  between 
the  toes  and  ankle.  A  bird  has  but  one  bone  in  the  lower  leg,  while  man  is 
supplied  with  two. 

The  bones  and  joints  of  a  bird's  wing  correspond  to  those  of  the  arm  and 
hand  of  man.     It  consists  of  one  long  bone  corresponding  to  the  long  bone 


OUTLINES   IX    NATUEB    STUDY.  61 

of  the  upper  arm.     Joining  this  are  two  hones  corresponding  to  die  two  bo 
of  the  forearm.     To  these  are  joined  two  bones  which  correspond  roughly  to 
the  five  sets  of  hones  forming  the  palm  and  fingers.     The  joints  correspond  to 

the  elbow  and  wrist. 

The  backbone    of  the    tortoise   is   composed  of   bones  which  are   firmly 
fastened  together.     The  ribs  also  are  joined  together  and  have  no  power 
motion. 

The  backbone  of  the  snake  is  made  up  of  bones  joined  by  a  succession  of 
ball  and  socket  joints.  For  this  reason  it  can  glide  swiftly  from  place  to 
place.  The  snake  has  no  breast-bone,  as  this  would  interfere  with  its  active 
movements.     All  other  reptiles  have  flat  breast-bones. 

The  bones  forming  the  backbone  and  tail  of  the  lizard  are  so  loosely 
joined  that  a  part  of  the  tail  can  be  cast  off  without  inconvenience. 

The  bones  in  the  head  of  a  fish  are  somewhat  harder  than  its  other  boi 
Its  bones  are  light  in  weight  and  are  very  soft  and  gristly.     This  permits 
them  to  bend  easily,  and  by  this  means  the  fish  can  twist  its  body  in  any 
direction  in  gliding  through  the  water. 

Some  animals  have  no  skeleton  within  the  body.  Some  of  these  are  pro- 
tected by  a  covering  on  the  outside.  Among  these  are  spiders,  insects,  shell- 
fish,  and  starfish. 

Some  have  neither  a  hard  covering  nor  anything  corresponding  to  a  sk< 
ton.     Among  these  are  worms  and  jellyfish. 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  BODES  OF  ANIMALS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Compare  the   eyes  of  various  animals,  such   as  the   cat,  the 
eagle,  the  mole,  the  fly,  the  penguin,  the  hen,  the  horse,  etc. 
Compare,  as  to  then-  shape  and  use,  the  tails  of  animals,  such 
the  horse,  the  cow,  the  squirrel,  the  rat,  the  whale,  the  catfish, 
the  alligator,  the  opossum,  etc. 


62  OUTLINES   IN   NATURE    STUDY. 

Which  animals  have  a  keen  sense  of  sight,  hearing,  smell,  or 
touch  ?     Of  what  use  is  this  to  the  animal  ? 

How  do  the  coverings  of  animals  differ  ?  Why  are  birds  cov- 
ered with  feathers?     Why  are  fish  covered  with  a  scaled  armor? 

■ 

Why  is  the  snake  covered  with  a  smooth  skin  ?  Why  is  it  sup- 
plied with  scales  ?  Why  is  the  hide  of  a  rhinoceros  in  folds  or 
wrinkles  ?     Why  is  the  bear  covered  with  fur  ? 

Compare  the  tongues  of  various  animals,  such  as  the  snake, 
the  frog,  the  woodpecker,  the  giraffe,  the  cat,  the  tiger,  the 
horse,  the  lizard,  etc.  What  is  the  advantage  of  the  peculiarity 
in  each  case  ? 

Examine  various  animals  for  the  purpose  of  finding  out  how 
they  obtain  their  food. 

Of  what  uses  are  a  crab's  claws  ? 

Of  what  use  is  the  elephant's  trunk  ? 

Why  has  an  owl  such  large  eyes  ? 

Of  what  use  is  a  camel's  hump  ?  What  causes  it  to  increase  or 
diminish  in  size  ?     When  is  it  smallest  ? 

Of  what  use  is  the  long  neck  of  the  giraffe  ?  of  the  stork  ? 

Why  has  the  chamois  double  hoofs  ? 

What  takes  the  place  of  muscles  in  a  fly's  eves? 

Win*  have  a  cat's  eyes  power  to  change  the  shape  of  the  pupils  ? 

Of  what  use  are  whiskers  to  a  cat  ? 

Why  have  owls  and  bats  such  prominent  ears  ? 

Why  has  a  tiger  padded  toes  ? 

Whv  is  the  cow  a  cud-chewer? 

Why  is  the  beaver  web-footed  ? 

Why  does  the  tail  of  the  tadpole  disappear  ? 

Which  has  the  softer  covering,  the  cat  or  the  dog  ?     Why  ? 

What  is  the  color  of  the  polar  bear  ?     Why  ? 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  6 


Why  can  a  fly  walk  on  the  ceiling  ? 

Of  what  uses  are  a  chicken's  claws  ? 

Of  what  uses  are  a  sparrow's  wings  ?  Why  cannol  a  chicken 
fly  well  ? 

Why  does  not  a  canary  fall  from  its  perch  when  it  is  asleep? 

Of  what  use  are  nostrils  to  a  fish  ? 

Of  what  use  are  a  snake's  tongue  and  teeth?  Wha1  takes  tin- 
place  of  feet  in  a  snake?     Of  what  color  is  it?     Why? 

Why  is  not  the  whale  a  fish  ? 

Why  is  not  the  spider  an  insect  ? 

Why  is  not  the  bat  a  bird  ? 

Of  what  uses  is  the  lion's  mane  ? 

Why  can  a  camel  close  its  nostrils  ? 

Of  what  use  is  the  squirrel's  tail  ?  the  horse's  tail  ? 

Name  some  animals  that  walk  on  their  toes;  some  that  walk 
on  their  toe-nails. 

At  the  Zoological  Garden  many  animals  of  all  kinds  can  be 
examined  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  their  peculiarities  and 
the  reasons  for  them.  The  climate  in  which  they  are  fitted  to 
live,  the  kind  of  food  which  they  eat,  the  ground  over  which 
they  are  fitted  to  travel,  and  their  means  of  protection  or 
defense  can  all  be  discovered  by  close  observation. 

In  any  dictionary  or  encyclopedia,  pictures  of  many  varieties 
of  animals  can  be  seen. 

Summary. 

All  animals  have  bodies  that  are  fitted  to  the  conditions  of  their  existence. 
They  are  covered  according  to  the  climate  b  which  they  live  and  the  mode 
of  life  which  they  lead.     They  are  given  organs  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 


64  OUTLINES   IX   NATUBB   STUDY. 

food.  They  have  also  some  means  to  protect  and  defend  themselves  or  else 
to  escape  from  danger.  The  way  in  which  they  move  from  place  to  jilaee  is 
adapted  to  obtaining  food  or  escaping  from  an  enemy. 

All  organs  grow  with  use.  The  more  any  organ  is  used,  the  better  it  will 
do  its  work.  If  an  organ  is  not  used  it  becomes  weak  and  small,  and  finally 
disappears. 

Some  animals  need  a  covering  that  is  light  in  weight.  Many  beasts  need 
a  heavy,  warm  covering.  Under  some  conditions  a  smooth  covering  is  neees- 
v  to  the  animal  to  permit  it  to  move  easily  and  quickly.  Birds  need  a  cover- 
ering  as  light  in  weight  as  possible.  BeaMs  that  live  in  warm  countries  do 
not  need  so  heavy  a  covering  as  those  of  cold  countries.  Some  birds  change 
their  homes  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  food.  Some  other  animals  lie  dor- 
mant during  the  winter  season  when  there  is  a  lack  of  food.  Animals  that 
do  not  change  their  homes  have  power  to  change  their  covering  with  the 
change  of  seasons. 

Animals  that  live  in  water  either  all  or  a  part  of  the  time  have  organs  fitted 
to  supply  their  needs.  Fish  have  the  scaled,  oily  body  and  head  of  such  a 
shape  that  it  can  glide  most  easily  through  the  water.  In  many  cases  a  fish 
is  also  supplied  with  an  air  bladder,  by  means  of  which  it  can  float. 

Birds  and  reptiles  that  swim  are  web-footed.  The  hippopotamus,  alligator, 
and  frog  can  close  their  eyes,  ears,  and  nostrils  under  water.  These  also  have 
coverings  suited  to  life  in  the  water. 

All  animals  have  organs  specially  arranged  to  suit  their  needs. 

The  eyes  of  birds  are  supplied  with  three  eyelids,  one  of  which  is  a  thin 
skin,  with  which  the  eyes  can  be  shielded  from  the  bright  sun  without  inter- 
n-ring with  sight.  The  eyes  of  the  eagle  and  the  hawk  are  supplied  with  bones 
arranged  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  see  distant  objects  as  well  as  those  that 
are  near.  The  eyes  of  insects  are  not  supplied  with  muscles,  but  are  many- 
sided  instead. 

When  an  organ  is  no  longer  used,  it  soon  becomes  powerless  to  act  and 
finally  is  lost  entirely.  The  blind  fish  of  Mammoth  Cave  are  blind  because 
they  live  in  darkness.  The  eves  of  the  mole  are  almost  covered  bv  thick 
fur.  The  tail  of  the  tadpole  becomes  smaller  and  smaller,  and  finally  disap- 
pears when  it  is  no  longer  used. 

The  lion's  mane  protects  its  eyes  from  sand. 


OUTLINES    IX    NATtJRE    BTUDY.  65 

The  camel's  eyes  are  covered  with  a  fringe  of  hair.     It  has  power  to  «•!■ 
its  nostrils.     Its  knees  are  cushioned  for  kneeling.     It-  feel  will  qo1  -ink  in 
the  sand.    Its  stomach  can  be  used'for  storing  food  and  water.     It-  hump  also 
supplies  it  with  food  when  no  other  can  be  obtained. 

The  polar  bear  has  a  growth  of  coarse  hair  od   it-  feet,  which  enables  it  to 
walk  on  slippery  ice  and  snow. 

Beasts  that  climb  in  rocky  and  mountainous  places  have  slender,  nimble 
legs  and  double  hoofs.     Those  that  climb  trees  have  -harp  claws. 

Animals  that  seek  their  food  at  night  have  eyes  thai   can  see   in   darkm 
Their  covering  is  soft  and  smooth,  so  as  to  make  as  little   noise  as  possil 
Tigers  and  cats  are  supplied  with  feelers  or  whiskers.     Their  padded   1 
also  assist  them  to  move  quietly  and  prevent  the  body  from  being  jarred  when 
jumping.     The  bat's  body  is  covered  with  soft  hair  and  it  ha-  prominent  eat 

Animals  have  organs  of  various  kinds  for  obtaining  t' 1. 

Beasts  of  prey  have  slender,  agile  bodies.  They  air  supplied  with  teeth 
and  claws  with  which  thev  capture  animals  for  food.     Thev  have  also  rough 

v  J.  « 

tongues  and  sharp  teeth  for  tearing  the  flesh  food.     Tiny  nave  a   keen  g 
of  sight,  smell,  and  hearing. 

Birds  of  prey  have  sharp  beaks  and  talons  with  which  they  Beize  ami  tear 
their  food.  In  place  of  teeth  a  bird  has  a  gizzard.  In  the  gizzard  the  food 
is  ground  and  crushed  by  means  of  the  pebbles  which  arc  swallowed  for  that 
purpose. 

Some  animals  that  feed  on  grass  and  grain  are  cud-chewers.  These  ani- 
mals could  not,  at  one  time,  eat  enough  food  and  chew  it  properly  t<>  -ap- 
ply the  necessary  amount  of  nourishment  for  their  large,  heavy  1>"<1 
Anions;  wild  animals  of  this  kind  many  are  obliged  t<»  travel  a  long  distance 
to  obtain  food.  For  these  reasons  they  are  supplied  with  stomachs  in  which 
they  can  store  food  for  future  use.  These  animals  have  fleshy  tongues  ami 
broad,  flat  teeth  for  grinding  their  food.  The  giraffe  hafl  long  tore  legs  and 
neck  so  as  to  reach  the  leaves  of  trees,  on  which  it  feeds.  It  has  also  a  flex- 
ible tongue,  which  it  can  twine  around  the  leaves  in  plucking  them  from  the 
trees. 

Beasts  and  reptiles  that  feed  on  insects  have  many  -mall,  sharply  pointed 
teeth.  Birds  that  feed  on  insects  have  Ion--,  -lender  l.ill-  with  which  they  can 
obtain  food  from  the  flowers  or  the  bark  »>t'  a  t iv.  .     The   frog  ha-  ii-  tong 


60  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

fastened  to  the  front  of  its  mouth.  It  can  dart  its  tongue  out  quickly,  catch 
an  insect  with  the  tip,  and  carry  it  to  the  hack  part  of  the  mouth. 

Ducks  have  bills  with  toothed  edges.  Through  these  they  sift  the  mud 
and  water,  retaining  in  their  hills  only  the  food  which  they  desire. 

The  broad  snout  of  the  hog  is  used  for  digging  from  the  ground  the  roots 
on  which  it  feeds. 

Rats  and  mice  use  their  hairless  tails  for  obtaining  liquid  food  which  would 
otherwise  he  beyond  their  reach. 


MEANS  OF  DEFENSE. 

Conversational   Lesson. 

Examine  various  animals  for  the  purpose  of  rinding  out  how 
they  protect  themselves  from  attack. 

Name  some  animals  that  have  any  of  the  following  means  of 
defense:  stings,  horns,  fins,  teeth,  pincers,  claws  and  beak,  claws 
and  teeth,  tail. 

How  do  the  following  animals  defend  themselves:  cat?  dog? 
horse?  cow?  mouse?  squirrel?  bee?  fish?  snake?  hen?  rabbit? 
tortoise?  lobster?  eagle?  sparrow?  What  animals  are  enemies 
to  those  animals  ? 

Which  animals  escape  from  their  enemies  by  quick  movement? 
Which  have  homes  that  their  enemies  cannot  reach? 

Of  what  use  are  a  deer's  antlers? 

Why  does  a  rabbit  live  in  a  hole  in  the  ground ? 

Why  is  the  tortoise  covered  with  shell? 

Why  does  an  opossum  pretend  to  be  dead? 


OUTLINES    IN   NATUKE    STUDY.  67 


Summary. 

Animals  defend  themselves  in  various  ways. 

Birds  of  prey  attack  other  animals  with  talons  and  Leaks,  Other  birds, 
when  attacked,  use  their  bills  and  claws  to  defend  them>elv<  -  Beasts  I 
prey  use  claws  and  teeth  for  the  same  purpose.  Some  of  these  -nik<-  an 
enemy  with  a  heavy  paw. 

Animals  that  feed  on  grass  or  grain  are  supplied  either  with  Bharp  front  teeth 
or  tusks,  or  else  wdth  horns  with  which  to  defend  themselves.  The  tails  of 
many  animals  are  also  used  to  defend  then i  against  attack  or  a-  a  means  of 
escaping  from  it. 

The  mane  of  the  lion  and  the  horse  not  only  protects  the  eyes  from  dust, 
but  also  protects  the  animal  from  the  teeth  or  claws  of  other  animals. 

Some  beasts  hug  then*  victims  until  the  breath  is  forced  oul  of  the  body 
and  the  lungs  collapse.  The  flat  foot  of  the  hear  enables  it  to  stand  firmly 
on  its  hind  feet  while  suffocating;-  its  victims.  The  kangaroo  holds  it-  prey  in 
its  fore  leers  and  tears  the  body  with  the  long;  middle  claw   of  each  hind  foot 

Some  snakes  crush  then-  victims  bv  twining  their  long  body  round  and  round 
the  captive.     Others  are  .supplied  with  poison  fangs  with  which  they  kill  an 
enemy.     Other  snakes  and  lizards  seek  safety  in  flight     The  lizard  can  c 
part  of  its  body  and  thus  escape  from  danger. 

The  tortoise  cannot  move  rapidly  and  it  protects  itself  from  danger  by 
withdrawing:  into  its  shell.  It  also  uses  its  beak  to  defend  itself.  Snails  also 
can  withdraw  into  then*  shells  at  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 

Oysters  and  clams  have  then  bodies  protected  by  a  hard  covering  which 
they  can  close  when  in  danger. 

Fish  use  fins  and  tail  as  a  defense.  Nearly  one  half  of  the  body  is  made 
up  of  backbone  and  muscle,  with  which  a  blow  can  be  struck,  as  well  as  the 
body  propelled  through  the  water. 

Lobsters  and  crabs  are  covered  by  shells.  They  are  also  supplied  with 
pincers  and  ckws  with  which  they  can  capture  their  prey  or  injure  an  enemy. 
These  animals  can  also  drop  off  the  whole  or  part  ^i  a  claw  and  thus  remove 
the  remainder  of  the  body  from  danger. 

Insects  are  supplied  with  wings  with  which  they  can  escape  from  danger. 


68  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

Some  are  supplied  with  stings  as  a  means  of  defense.  Birds  also  find  safety 
in  flight  from  their  natural  enemies.  Some  animals  climb  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. Monkey-  use  their  four  hand-like  feet  and  then*  tails  for  escaping  from 
danger. 

Some  animals  have  homes  of  such  a  kind  that  their  enemies  cannot  reach 
them.  This  may  he  the  nest  of  the  bird,  the  burrow  of  the  rabbit,  or  the 
squirrel's  hollow  tree.  Animals  build  their  homes  so  as  to  imitate  the  sur- 
rounding. To  these  homes  they  flee  swiftly  when  they  have  no  means 
to   combat  an  enemy  successfully. 

Some  animals  have  the  power  of  sending  forth  an  unpleasant  odor  which 
acts  as  a  safeguard  and  prevents  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 


COLOR   AS    A  PROTECTION* 

Conversational   Lesson. 

Consider  the  color  of  animals  in  reference  to  where  they  make 
their  homes  and  seek  their  food. 

Of  what  use  is  it  to  many  birds  to  be  brown  in  color?  Why 
are  birds  in  tropical  countries  covered  with  brilliant  plumage? 

Why  is  the  tiger  striped?  the  leopard  spotted?  Why  has  the 
grasshopper  its  color?     Why  is  the  frog  green? 

Of  what  colors  are  bears  ?     Why  ? 

What  is  the  difference  in  color  between  the  ovster  and  the 
clam?     Of  what  use  is  its  color  to  each  of  these  animals? 

Name  some  other  animals  that  live  in  the  water.  What  is  the 
color  of  each?     Why? 

Which  animals  seek  their  food  at  night?  Of  what  color  is 
each  ?     Why  ? 


OUTLINES   IN   NATURE    STUDY.  09 

Summary. 

Animals  are  protected  by  their  color,  which  is  generally  similar  to  the 
surroundings.  This  is  of  use  whether  the  animal  is  seeking  to  attack  or  to 
escape  from  another. 

Fish  generally  have  bodies  with  the  upper  side  dark.    Those  thai  live  a< 
the  surface  of  sparkling  water  have  brilliant,  silvery  bodies  somewhat  lil 
sunlit  ripples.     Those  that  inhabit  the  deepest  water  are  of  a  color  resembli 
the  bed. 

Lobsters  and  crabs  are  of  the  same  color  as  seaweed.  'I'll*-  snake  and  liz- 
ard are  similar  in  color  to  the  mossy  ground.  The  brown  feathered  coats  of 
birds  resemble  the  bare  branches  of  the  trees.  Those  of  more  brilliant  plum- 
age are  found  among  bright- colored  grasses,  leaves,  and  flowers. 

Insects  that  hover  near  water  have  transparent  wings.  Those  that  live 
among  leaves  or  on  the  stems  of  plants  are  green.  Others  that  live  among 
dried  and  faded  grasses,  on  the  bark  of  trees,  or  on  the  ground  have  bodies 
of  a  color  to  imitate  the  surroundings. 

The  tiger's  striped  body  has  the  effect  of  the  shadow  and  sunlight  of  the 
long  grasses  among  which  he  roams. 

The  leopard's  spots  resemble  leaf  shadows.  The  sable  and  brown  bear  b 
coverings  of  a  color  similar  to  that  of  the  bark  of  tree-.  The  polar  bear  is 
white.  Animals  that  live  in  sandy  regions  are  of  a  tawny  color,  as  the  lion, 
the  camel,  the  shrimp,  and  the  clam.  The  bat  is  black  in  color,  and  the  rat 
and  mouse  are  of  a  dark  color  that  cannot  be  seen  easily  at  night  when  t hex- 
leave  their  nests  to  seek  food. 

HOW  DIFFERENT  ANIMALS  BREATHE. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Is  our  blood  warm  or  cold?     What  is  the  temperature  of  the 
blood   of   the    chicken?   the    tortoise?    the  catfish?    the    grass- 

hopper?  the  frog?  the  cat?  the  whale? 


TO  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

What  is  the  color  of  our  blood  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the  blood 
of  each  animal  just  mentioned? 

What  material  do  Ave  use  for  breathing?  What  is  used  by 
birds?  snakes?  whales?  crabs?  oysters?  flies?  do«"s? 

Examine  the  body  of  a  grasshopper  for  the  purpose  of  finding 
the  breathing  holes.  Have  insects  lungs?  Why  do  insects  and 
birds  need  air  in  every  part  of  the  body  ? 

Why  does  a  fish  constantly  open  and  close  its  mouth?  Of 
what  use  are  nostrils  to  a  fish  ?  Where  are  the  gills  of  a  fish  ? 
Of  what  color  are  they  ?  Why  ?  What  becomes  of  the  water 
after  a  fish  has  used  it  for  breathing  ?  How  are  the  gills  of  a  fish 
protected  ? 

Where  are  the  gills  of  the  oyster?  lobster?  clam?  What 
arrangement  does  a  clam  possess  for  sending  water  to  and  from 
the  gills  ? 

What  organs  do  we  use  for  breathing? 

What  other  animals  use  lungs?  What  is  the  color  of  a 
chicken's  lungs  ? 

Summary. 

All  animals  have  organs  of  breathing  suited  to  their  modes  of  life.  Some 
animals  breathe  air.  Among  these  are  human  beings,  beasts,  birds,  reptiles,  and 
insects.  Some  animals  breathe  water,  as  fish  and  shellfish.  The  object  of 
all  breathing  is  to  purify  the  blood. 

Among  those  that  breathe  air,  some  animals  have  lungs  for  breathing,  as 
man,  beasts,  reptiles.     Reptiles  breathe  very  much  more  slowly  than  we  do. 

The  tortoise  takes  in  air  through  the  nostrils  and  swallows  it.  After  it  has 
been  used,  the  lungs  slowlv  collapse  and  the  air  is  thus  sent  out.  The  lungs 
of  the  lizard  are  protected  by  movable  ribs.  The  muscles  attached  to  the 
ribs  move  them  and  thus  help  to  pump  the  air  in  and  out  of  the  lungs. 
Snakes  use  but  one  lung  and  this  is  a  very  long,  narrow  bag.     The  hissing 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  71 

noise  which  snakes  make  is  caused  by  forcing  the  air  quickly  in  and  oul   of 

this  ah-  bag. 

The  crocodile  has  a  valve  in  its  mouth.  This  is  used  to  separate  the  mouth 
from  the  air  passages.  The  air  is  taken  in  through  the  nostrils  and  Bent  to 
the  lungs.  The  nostrils  are  very  far  back  <m  its  head.  By  this  arrangement 
it  can  hold  a  victim  under  water  until  it  is  drowned,  without  being  deprived 
of  air  itself. 

Birds  breathe  by  means  of  lungs  connected  with  air  sacs.  These  air  sacs 
are  connected  also  with  the  hollow  bones.  There  are  nine  air  Bacs  altogether. 
Three  are  near  the  collar-bone,  four  are  in  the  chest,  and  two  are  in  the  abdo- 
men. This  arrangement  for  breathinir  is  also  an  advantage  in  making  the  body 
of  the  bird  light  and  thus  assisting  its  night. 

Insects  have  no  lungs  and  no  closed  svsteni  of  blood  vc^cK.  They 
breathe  air  by  means  of  spiracles.  Spiracles  are  tubes  which  open  on  the 
surface  of  the  body.  These  openings  are  called  breathing  holes.  The  tubes 
extend  to  every  part  of  the  body,  even  to  the  ends  of  the  legs  and  antennas, 
and  in  this  way  the  blood  in  every  part  of  the  body  is  purified.  A-  tl 
creatures  move  about  very  quickly,  it  is  necessary  that  the  spiracles  or  air 
tubes  should  be  very  flexible.  If  they  were  stiff  they  would  interfere  with 
the  movements  of  the  insect.  Most  tubes  that  are  flexible  will  flatten  it" 
they  are  bent  (as  a  piece  of  rubber  hose).  If  this  were  the  case  with  the 
ah*  tubes  of  insects,  they  would  be  deprived  of  air  whenever  the  tubes  w< 
bent.  To  avoid  this  danger,  the  air  tubes  have  double  wall-,  aid  between 
these  two  walls  is  Avound  a  strong,  hair-like  thread  in  the  form  of  a  Bpiral. 

Fish  breathe  water  by  means  of  gills.  Gills  consist  --t*  a  number  of  folds 
of  the  skin.  These  are  full  of  blood  vessels,  which  cause  them  t<-  have  a  red 
color.  The  gills  are  protected  by  a  scaly  cover.  The  fish  takes  in  water 
through  the  mouth  and  passes  it  through  toothed  slits  in  the  throat  to  the 
gill  chamber.  The  blood  ispurified  in  the  gills  by  mean-  ^\  this  water,  Then 
the  toothed  slits  are  closed  and  the  water  which  ha-  been  used  i-  forced  out 
under  the  gill  covers. 

In  fish  the  sills  are  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  head.  In  Lobsters  and 
crabs  the  gills  are  attached  to  the  legs.  In  the  clam  and  oyster  the  gills  are 
along  the  edge  under  the  mantle. 

The  clam  has  an  organ  for  carrying  water  to  and  from  the  gills.     This  is  I 


72  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

bent  tube  called  the  siphon,  that  passes  through  the  clam.  The  two  ends  of 
the  tube  are  side  by  side  on  one  edge  of  the  body.  It  has  power  to  extend 
this  tube  so  as  t<>  obtain  water  when  it  buries  itself  in  the  sand. 

The  tadpole  breathes  water  by  means  of  gills,  but  when  it  becomes  a  frog 
it  breathes  ah*  by  means  of  hums.  It  can  also  breathe  water  by  means  of 
its  skin. 


BEASTS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Examine  a  number  of  beasts  in  reference  to  their  covering. 
How  are  the  following  animals  covered:  the  lion?  the  bear? 
the  sheep?  the  hor.se  ?  the  dog  ?  the  cat?  the  whale  ?  the  bat? 
the  hedgehog?  the  hippopotamus? 

What  is  the  reason  for  the  kind  of  covering  each  of  these  ani- 
mals has? 

How  do  the  feet  of  animals  differ  ?  Name  an  animal  that 
walks  on  the  toes;  one  that  walks  on  the  toe-nails ;  one  that 
walks  on  its  whole  foot. 

Which  animals  have  paws?  Which  animals  have  hoofs? 
What  is  the  difference  between  a  paw  and  a  hoof? 

Name  an  animal  that  climbs  by  means  of  its  claws.  What 
does  a  monkey  use  for  climbing? 

Why  is  the  beaver  web-footed? 

Why  have  the  deer  and  chamois  double  hoofs  ? 

On  what  kind  of  food  do  each  of  these  animals  feed :  the  horse  ? 
the  cat  ?  the  dog  ?  the  pig  ?  the  cow  ?  the  rabbit  ? 

What  kind  of  teeth  have  animals  that  feed  on  flesh  ?  What  is 
the  difference  between  the  front  and  back  teeth  of  these  animals  ? 

What  kind  of  teeth  have  animals  that  feed  on  grain  ?     What 


OUTLINES    IN    NAT  I  TOE    STUDY.  ?•» 

teeth  are  missing  in  the  mouths  of  cud-chewer         Whv  Lb  the 
cow  a  cud-chewer?     What  movement  have  the  jaws  of  a  cow  in 

eating  ?     Why  ? 

What  kind  of  teeth  have  animals  that  gnaw?  What  teeth  are 
missing  in  the  jaws  of  these  animals  ? 

Plow  do  the  following  animals  defend  themselves:  the  cat? 
the  dog?  the  cow?  the  horse?  the  rabbit?  the  opossum?  the 
tiger?  the  squirrel?  the  monkey?   the  hear? 

Which  animals  use  their  horns  as  a  means  of  defense?  teeth 
and  hoofs  ?  teeth  and  claws  ?  the  tail  ?  flight  ? 

Why  does  a  rabbit  live  in  a  hole  in  the  ground  7 

Compare  the  body  of  a  tiger  with  that  of  a  hippopotamus  in 
reference  to  its  shape.  Which  has  the  most  nimble  body? 
Which  is  the  swiftest  ?     Why  ? 

Why  do  flesh-eating  animals  have  more  slender,  agile  bodies 
than  grain-eaters  ? 

Why  has  the  lion  a  thinly  covered  body  7 

Why  has  the  hippopotamus  a  tough,  thick  covering?  Why  is 
its  hide  in  wrinkles  or  folds  ? 

When  do  the  cat's  eyes  have  the  largest  pupils ?  Whit  are 
they  like  in  the  light  ? 

Why  is  the  tiger  covered  with  smooth,  soft   fur'.' 

Of  what  use  are  the  padded  toes  of  the  cat  and  tiger? 

Why  are  the  bat  and  rat  dark  in  color? 

Why  is  the  tiger  striped  ? 

Why  is  the  lion  tawny  ? 

Why  has  the  squirrel  its  color  ? 

Of  what  uses  are  the  various  animals  to  us? 

Name  some  that  are  useful  for  their  covering,  teeth,  horns, 
hide,  hoofs,  etc. 


74  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

A  visit  to  the  Zoological  Garden  will  be  a  means  of  gaining 
much  information  in  reference  to  all  kinds  of  beasts.  Careful 
observation  will  reveal  the  climate  of  the  country  from  which 
they  come,  and  the  kind  of  ground  over  which  they  travel.  The 
kind  of  food  which  they  prefer  and  the  means  by  which  they 
protect  and  defend  themselves  from  danger  can  also  be  discovered. 

Pictures  of  these  animals  can  be  seen  in  any  dictionary  or 
encyclopedia  at  any  public  library  ;  other  books  also  can  be  found 
containing  information  about  these  animals,  their  traits  of  char- 
acter, how  they  build  their  homes,  and  many  other  interesting 
facts. 

Summary. 

Beasts  are  four-footed  animals.  Thev  are  warm-blooded,  and  breathe  air 
by  means  of  lungs  Their  bodies  consist  of  a  bony  skeleton  covered  with 
muscle-.  The  outside  covering  varies  with  the  climate  and  habits  of  the 
animal.     Beasts  vary  in  size  from  the  mouse  to  the  elephant. 

Some  animals  are  covered  with  thick  hah-  or  wool,  as  the  bear  and  sheep. 
Some  are  covered  with  soft  fur,  as  the  tiger,  cat,  and  rabbit.  Others  are 
covered  with  a  tough,  thick  hide,  as  the  hippopotamus,  elephant,  and  whale. 
Others  have  a  Bkin  covered  with  hair,  as  the  horse  and  giraffe. 

Beasts  have  organs  fitted  to  their  needs,  by  means  of  which  they  move  from 
place  to  place,  obtain  food,  and  defend  themselves. 

The  teeth  of  beasts  differ  according  to  the  kinds  of  food  which  thev  need. 
Flesh-eating  animals  have  sharp  teeth  for  tearing  their  food.  These  animals 
have  also  very  rough  tongues,  as  the  tiger,  cat,  dog,  wolf,  and  lion.  Animals 
that  feed  on  grain  and  grass  have  broad,  flat  teeth  for  grinding  their  food. 
Some  of  these  animals  have  sharp  front  teeth  for  cutting  their  food,  or 
sharp  tusks  for  digging  roots  froni  the  ground.  .Among  these  are  the  horse, 
elephant,  hippopotamus,  and  pig. 

Some  grass-eating  animals  are  cud-chewers.  These  have  no  front  teeth  in 
the  upper  jaw.  These  animals  are  supplied  with  horns.  Among  these  are 
the  cow,  sheep,  goat,  deer,  etc.  The  camel  is  the  only  cud-chewer  that  has 
front  teeth  in  its  upper  jaw. 


OUTLINES   IN   NATURE    STUDY.  T.j 

Animals  that  gnaw  have  two  long,  sharp,  cutting  teeth  in  the  front  of  each 

jaw  and  grinding  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  jaws  at  the  hack,  with  a  Bpaoe  be- 
tween the  cutting  and  the  grinding  teeth.  The  teeth  of  these  animals  grow 
from  deep  sockets  and  continue  to  grow  during  the  whole  of  the  animal's 
life.     The  beaver,  the  rabbit,  the  squirrel,  and  the  rat  have  teeth  of  this  kind 

Animals  that  feed  on  insects,  such  as  the  hedgehog,  the  inch-,  and  the  bat, 
are  supplied  with  a  great  many  very  small  teeth  with  sharply  pointed  Bur- 
faces. 

The  feet  of  beasts  are  fitted  for  the  kind  of  ground  over  which  they  tra 
Some  have  hoofs  for  traveling  over  firm,  compact  surface-,  as  the  horse  and 
buffalo.    The  toe-nail  of  these  animals  covers  and  protects  the  toe.    The  camel 
is  fitted  to  walk  on  sandy  soil. 

Some  beasts  have  paws,  as  the  dog,  cat,  wolf,  and  panther.  The  feet  of 
these  animals  are  supplied  with  claws.  The  claws  of  animals  like  the  tigei 
and  cat  can  be  sheathed  or  extended  according  to  the  animal's  needs. 

Some  have  feet  adapted  to  rocky  surfaces  and  mountain  climbing,  as  the 
deer,  chamois,  sheep,  and  goat.    Animals  of  the  bear  family  walk  on  the  wh 
foot.     Most  other  animals  walk  only  on  their  toes.     Some  animals  have   : 
of  such  a  kind  that  they  can  grasp  firmly  when  climbing  or  swinging  from 
branches,  as  the  monkey,  the  opossum,  and  the  bat     The  Eeel   of  the  m 
and  rabbit  are  also  of  use  in  burrowing  through  the  ground.     They  make  their 
homes  so  that  enemies  cannot  reach  them. 

Beasts  defend  themselves  in  various  ways.  Beasts  of  prey  are  supplied 
with  strong  muscles  and  bones,  and  sharp  teeth  and  claws  with  which  they 
seize  then  victims. 

Other  animals  defend  themselves  with  hoofs,  horns,  or  teeth  when  they  are 
attacked.     Some  animals  have  solid  horns  that  branch,  as  the  deer.     Tin 
fall  off  each  spring  and  grow  again,  increasing  in  size  each  year.     The  cow 
has  hollow  horns  that  are  fastened  firmly  to  the  head  and  never  fall  off. 

Some  beasts  that  are  not  fitted  for  combat  seek  safety  in  flight  and  h 
agile  muscles  and  limbs  to  take  them  from  danger.     The  home-   of  these 
weaker  animals  are  generally  of  such  a  kind  and   location  that  they  cannot 
be  reached  bv  other  beasts  that  seek  to  injure  them. 

Some  animals  use  their  tails  to  defend  themselves,  a-  the  horse  and  li<>u. 
Others  use  their  tails  to  assist  them  in  climbing,  as  the  monkey  and  opossum. 


76  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

The  squirrel  uses  its  bushy  tail  in  balancing  the  body  as  it  jumps  from  tree 
to  tree.     The  whale  uses  its  tail  to  defend  itself  from  an  enemy. 

Animals  are  of  a  color  that  imitates  their  surroundings.  This  is  of  use 
whether  they  are  seeking  to  attack  or  escape  from  another  animal. 

Beasts  are  useful  to  us  in  various  ways.  Some  are  used  for  carrying  bur- 
dens, such  as  the  horse,  the  elephant,  the  camel,  the  ox,  and  the  mule.  Some 
supply  us  with  food.  Among  these  are  the  cow,  the  deer,  the  buffalo,  the  rab- 
bit, the  giraffe,  and  the  bear. 

The  coverings  of  some  animals  are  of  use  in  making  rugs  and  fur  garments. 
Among  these  are  the  buffalo,  the  bear,  the  marten,  the  ermine,  the  tiger,  the 
squirrel,  and  the  seal.  The  coverings  of  certain  other  animals  supply  us 
with  materials  for  making  clothing,  as  the  camel,  the  sheep,  and  the  alpaca. 
The  hides  of  some  animals  are  tanned  into  leather,  as  the  ox,  the  chamois, 
the  goat,  and  the  kangaroo. 

The  horns  and  tusks  of  some  animals  are  used  in  making  combs,  buttons, 
handles  for  knives  and  umbrellas,  and  other  fancy  articles.  Among  these  are 
the  cow,  deer,  and  elephant.  The  bones  ami  hoofs  of  the  horse,  cow,  and 
some  other  animals  are  sometimes  made  into  glue,  and  the  hah-  is  used  in 
making  plaster. 

The  seal,  whale,  and  walrus  supply  us  with  oil.  From  another  kind  of 
whale  we  obtain  a  material  known  as  whalebone.  The  whale  of  this  class 
has  no  teeth.  To  the  roof  of  the  mouth  is  attached  a  substance  consisting 
of  many  rows  of  hard  fringes.  This  constitutes  an  immense  sieve  for 
obtaining  its  food,  which  consists  of  small  marine  animals.  This  arrangement 
is  made  of  the  material  which  we  call  whalebone. 


BIRDS. 

Conversational   Lesson. 

Examine  as  many  birds  as  possible.  A  visit  to  the  Zoological 
Garden  will  be  a  means  of  gaining  much  information  in  reference 
to  the  structure,  size,  shape,  and  coloring  of  these  animals,  as  well 


OUTLINES   IN   NATURE    STUDY.  77 

as  the    difference  in   the   shape  and  color  of  their  bills,  claws, 

eyes,  etc. 

From  these  facts  much  can  be  discovered  in  reference  to  their 
manner  of  moving  about,  their  means  of  defense,  and  their  method 
of  obtaining  food.  Much  information  can  be  obtained  from 
a  dictionary  or  encyclopedia,  hi  any  public  library  can  be 
found    other  books  about  their  habits  and  manner  of   building 

their  nests. 

How  many  legs  have  birds  ?  Do  they  all  have  the  Bame  number 
of  claws ?  Name  some  birds  that  scratch  with  their  claws.  What 
is  the  difference  in  position  of  the  back  toe  of  a  scrateher  and  a 
percher?  Why  does  not  a  bird  fall  from  its  perch  when  it  is 
asleep?  Name  some  birds  that  perch;  some  thai  swim:  Borne 
that  wade;  some  that  climb;  some  that  hop:  some  that  run: 
some  whose  claws  are  a  means  of  defense:  some  whose  claws 
are  used  in  obtaining  food.  How  do  the  claws  of  animals  differ? 
What  peculiarity  have  the  claws  of  a  parrot?  Wh.n  are  the 
claws  of  an  eagle  called  ? 

Consider  the  fact  that  the  claws  of  a  bird  are  really  lis  toes. 
The  first  joint  from  the  toes,  that  bends  backward,  corresponds 
to  the  heel  of  human  beings.  The  knee  joint  (which  bends  for- 
ward in  all  animals)  is  close  to  the  body  u\u\rv  the  feathers. 

Do  all  birds  have  the  same  kind  of  covering?     Why  are  birds 
covered  with  feathers  instead  of  fur?     What  is  the  difference  be- 
tween the  feathers  of  a  duck  and  those  of  a  chicken  V     Why  are 
the  duck's  feathers  more  oily?     Why  are  the  owl's  feathers  a 
soft  and  downy  ?     Why  has  the  eider  duck  sndi  a  close  covering 

of  down ? 

Of  what  use  are  feathers  to  a  bird  ?  As  the  feathers  are  suffi- 
cient covering  to  keep  them  warm,  why  do  some  \nnU  migrate  at 


78  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

the  approach  of  cold  weather?  What  is  meant  by  "birds  of 
passage  ? ' 

Examine  a  bird's  feather  closely,  under  a  microscope.  A  feather 
is  fastened  in  the  bird's  skin  by  means  of  a  tube.  This  tube  forms 
a  middle  vein  in  the  feather.  On  each  side  is  a  row  of  smaller 
stalks  or  veins  closely  planted.  These  also  in  some  cases  bear 
still  smaller  veins. 

Of  what  advantage  to  a  bird  are  hollow  bones  ? 

On  what  do  birds  feed  ?  Do  all  birds  eat  the  same  kind  of  food  ? 
What  kinds  of  food  are  preferred  by  the  sparrow,  the  duck,  the 
canary,  the  eagle,  the  sea  gull,  the  parrot,  the  crow,  the  stork,  the 
woodpecker,  and  the  blackbird  ? 

What  kind  of  beak  and  claws  have  the  eagle  and  the  owl? 
Why  have  buds  that  eat  insects  long  bills?  Why  have  grain 
eaters  strong  bills  ?  Why  have  birds  of  prey  sharp  hooked 
beaks  ? 

What  kind  of  a  beak  has  each  of  the  following :  humming-bird, 
sparrow,  raven,  hawk,  pelican,  robin,  bobolink  (or  rice-bird),  crow, 
duck,  lark,  blackbird,  and  magpie  ? 

Of  what  use  are  wings  to  a  bird  ?  Where  are  the  muscles  that 
move  the  wings  ?  Of  what  use  are  wings  to  the  ostrich  and  pen- 
guin ?     How  does  a  bird  use  its  wings  in  flying  ? 

Consider  how  the  sizes  of  birds  vary,  from  the  tiny  humming- 
bird to  the  albatross,  which  measures  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  be- 
tween the  tips  of  its  wings. 

In  how  many  ways  are  birds  useful  to  us  ?  Name  birds  that 
are  useful  in  each  of  the  different  ways. 


OUTLINES   IN   NATURE   STUDY.  TO 


Summary. 


Birds  are  two-footed  animals.  They  have  a  bony  skeleton  covered  with 
flesh  and  feathers.  Their  bones  are  hollow  and  filled  with  air;  this  helpe  to 
make  the  framework  of  the  body  very  light.  They  are  warm-blooded  animals. 
They  have  no  teeth,  but  crush  their  food  by  means  of  a  gizzard.  They  feed 
on  worms,  grains,  fruits,  insects,  and  fish,  and  have  a  1  > il  1  and  daws  fitted  for 
obtaining  the  kind  of  food  which  they  need.  The  bill  of  the  bird  is  the  horny 
covering  of  the  jaws. 

The  eyes  of  birds  are  supplied  with  three  eyelids,  —  an  upper  eyelid,  a 
lower  eyelid,  and  a  skin  or  membrane  attached  inside  the  lower  lid.  This  can 
be  drawn  over  the  eye  like  a  curtain,  and  by  means  of  it  birds  can  look  at  tin- 
sun  without  inconvenience.  The  eyes  of  birds  like  the  eagle  and  hawk  are 
supplied  with  a  set  of  bony  plates  which  can  be  arranged  for  seeing  objecte 
that  are  distant  as  well  as  those  that  are  near. 

Birds  of  prey  have  strong,  sharp  beaks  that  are  hooked,  and  sharp  claw 
talons.     Among  these  are  the  eagle  and  the  owl.     Birds  that  feed  on  grain 
have  short,  strong  beaks,  as  the  lark,  the  bobolink,  and  the  sparrow.     Birds 
that  feed  on  insects  have  long,  slender  beaks.     The  blackbird,  humming-bird, 
and  robin  have  bills  of  this  kind. 

Birds  can  move  from  place  to  place  in  different  ways.  Most  birds  move  by 
flvimr.  These  have  bodies  that  are  light  in  weight,  and  wings  and  muscles 
of  size  and  strength  sufficient  to  raise  them  in  the  air.  Some  birds  can  run. 
Among  these  are  the  ostrich  and  sandpiper.  The  ostrich  can  run  Yen- 
swiftly  for  many  hours,  using  its  wings  like  sails,  but  it  does  no1  escape  from 
its  pursuers  because  it  runs  in  a  series  of  circles.  Many  birds  that  fly  hop 
when  they  are  on  the  ground. 

The  adjutant  bird  or  marabout,  which  is  found  in  Asia  and  Africa,  i-  the 
only  bird  that  walks  on  its  whole  foot.  The  first  joint  from  the  toes  (which 
is  really  the  heel)  rests  on  the  ground  along  with  the  toes.  The  Legs  of  birds 
are  covered  with  a  scale-like  skin. 

Thb  claws  of  birds  are  fitted  for  the  particular  needs  of  the  bird.  Some 
need  claws  for  scratching,  as  the  peacock,  chicken,  pigeon,  and  quail.  Birds 
that  scratch  do  not  fly  much  and  they   have   short    wings.      The  parrot  and 


80  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

woodpecker  have  long,  large  feet,  with  two  front  toes  and  two  back,  with 
which  they  can  climb  along  the  bark  of  trees. 

The  lark  and  canary  have  claws  with  which  they  can  grasp  a  twig  firmly  in 
perching.     All  birds  that  perch  have  a  long  hind  toe. 

The  tendon  that  is  used  to  bend  the  claws  passes  over  the  joint  in  such  a 
May  that  when  the  bird  is  perching,  the  weight  of  the  body,  pressing  down- 
ward, keeps  the  claws  bent  firmly. 

Birds  that  swim  are  web-footed,  and  have  broad  bodies.  Among  these  are 
the  duck,  goose,  pelican,  and  sea  gull. 

Birds  that  wade  have  long  legs,  with  long,  flat  toes,  as  the  stork,  heron. 
and  sandpiper;  but  these  birds  can  fly  as  well  as  wade. 

All  birds  have  bills  or  beaks  fitted  to  obtain  the  kind  of  food  that  thev 
nee«l.  They  make  their  homes  near  places  where  this  food  can  be  most 
easily  obtained. 

* 

Some  birds  go  fishing  for  food.  Among  these  are  the  duck,  the  pelican, 
the  penguin,  the  sea  gull,  and  the  stork. 

Some  of  these  have  webbed  feet  so  that  thev  can  swim  after  their  food. 
The  wings  of  the  penguin  have  no  feathers.  It  uses  them  as  fins  for  the 
purpose  of  swimming.  The  stork  and  heron  have  long  legs  and  spread  toes 
for  the  purpose  of  wading  after  frogs,  lizards,  etc.  Other  birds,  such  as  the 
sea  gull  and  the  pelican,  fly  close  to  the  water  and  seize  the  fish  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  pelican  has  a  skin-like  pouch,  or  bag,  in  which  it  places  the  fish  which 
is  captured,  to  be  eaten  later.  The  sea  gull  and  pelican  are  web-footed  and 
have  long,  hooked  beak-. 

The  fishhawk  or  osprey  has  claws  like  the  eagle,  with  which  it  catches  fish. 

All  birds  of  prey  are  solitary  in  their  habits.  The  owl  is  a  bird  of  prey 
that  flies  at  night  and  feeds  on  other  creatures  that  wander  at  night,  such  as 
rats,  mice,  bats,  etc. 

The  flesh  of  some  birds  is  useful  for  food  to  man  and  other  animals.  The 
eggs  of  some  birds  are  also  useful  for  food. 

The  feathers  of  some  birds  are  used  as  decoration  by  both  civilized  and 
savage  races. 

Some  birds  are  useful  in  destroying  other  creatures  that  annoy  us,  as  worms, 
bugs,  beetles,  etc. 


OUTLINES    IN   NATUIIE    STUDY. 


81 


Some  birds  build  nests;  others  do  not.  Nests  arc  generally  built  bo  that 
the  inside  is  soft  and  warm.  Sometimes  they  arc  made  of  bay  and  Btraw. 
Some  are  lined  with  horsehair,  feathers,  thistledown,  moss,  or  sheep's   wool, 

which  are  found  on  bushes.     The  nest  of  the  ostrich  is  -imply  a  hole  in   I 
ground,  in  which  it  places  the  eggs.     It  sometimes  wanders  a  long  distance 
seeking  food.     If  in  its  wanderings  it  finds  another  nest,  it  forgets  it-  own 
and  adopts  the  one  it  has  found. 

Some  birds  build  then  nests  in  high  places.  The  eagle  places  itfl  nesl 
among  the  rocks.  The  sea  gull  builds  its  nest  of  seaweed  on  ledges  of  rock 
close  to  shore.     The  heron  makes  its  nest  in  the  tops  of  tall  trees. 

Other  birds  have  their  nests  in  low  places.  The  lark"-  aest  i>  built  on  the 
ground  and  is  lined  with  dried  grass  and  roots.  The  partridge  scratches  a  h<  >le 
in  the  ground  among  high  grass  or  corn,  and  lays  a  few  twigs  across  it  The 
peacock  hides  its  nest  on  the  ground  among  low  bushes.  It  Is  made  of  a  few 
sticks,  twigs,  and  leaves  closely  put  together. 

Some  birds  build  their  nests  in  trees.     The  thrush  uses  either  a  tree  or  a 
low  bush.     The  jay's  nest  is  made  of  roots  woven  together  like  a  basketj  I 
is  placed  upon  a  kind  of  platform  of  birch  and  other  small  t\\  iga  pul   together 

very  loosely. 

The  nest  of  the  bobolink  or  reed  bird  is  woven  of  broken  reeds  and  grasses 
and  pieces  of  moss.  It  fixes  it  among  the  tall  reels  and  grasses  on  the  edge 
of  a  stream,  using  the  reeds  as  pillars  to  support  it. 

The  sparrow  builds  a  nest  either  in  a  tree  or  under  the  eaves  of  a  houi  It 
will  also  steal  the  nests  of  other  birds. 

Birds  build  then*  nests  so  as  to  imitate  the  surroundings  and  thus  protect 
the  inmates  from  their  enemies.  Then  nests  are  always  bo  placed  a-  to  be 
near  the  kind  of  food  which  they  prefer. 

As  a  general  thing,  the  smaller  the  bird  and  the  more  delicately  formed 
its  feet  and  bill,  the  more  compactly  will  its  nest  be  built 


82  OUTLINES   IN   NATURE   STUDY. 


REPTILES. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Examine  some  animals  that  are  reptiles.  These  can  be  seen 
at  the  Zoological  Garden,  as  well  as  in  many  damp  places  in 
meadows  or  Avoods.  Examine  each  reptile  in  reference  to  its  color, 
size,  shape,  covering,  manner  of  moving  from  place  to  place,  its 
means  of  defense,  etc.  Snake  skins  and  tortoise  shells  should  also 
be  examined. 

In  what  kind  of  climate  are  reptiles  fitted  to  live  ?  During 
which  season  are  the}'  inactive?  What  does  "dormant"  mean? 
What  do  they  use  for  breathing  ?  Why  can  some  of  them  remain 
under  water  for  a  time  ?  What  kind  of  food  does  each  of  these 
animals  eat  ?  Which  of  these  animals  have  no  teeth  ?  Which 
have  beaks  ?  What  peculiarity  have  the  teeth  of  snakes  ?  the 
teeth  of  alligators  ? 

Which  of  these  reptiles  have  no  feet  ?  What  kind  of  feet  have 
the  other  reptiles  ? 

Where  are  the  nostrils  of  the  crocodile  ? 

How  do  the  eggs  of  the  tortoise  and  crocodile  differ  from  those 
of  the  chicken  ? 

Name  some  snakes  that  are  poisonous.  Name  some  that  are 
not.  Where  does  a  snake  carry  its  poison  ?  How  does  a  boa- 
constrictor  treat  its  victims  ? 

What  use  do  we  make  of  reptiles  ? 

In  what  country  is  the  crocodile  considered  sacred  ? 

What  peculiarity  has  the  chameleon  ? 

Many  interesting  facts  in  reference  to  the  habits  of  these  ani- 


OUTLINES   IN    NATURE    STUDY.  83 

mals,  as  well  as  to  their  structure,  color,  etc.,  can  be  found  in 
books  in  any  public  library. 

Summary. 

The  lizard,  tortoise,  snake,  crocodile,  and  alligator  are  reptiles. 

Reptiles  are  cold-blooded,  egg-laying  animals  that  crawl  along  the  ground. 
Thev  all  have  backbones.  Some  have  bodies  covered  with  horn-like  plates 
Others  are  covered  with  scales.  These  scales  are  really  folds  of  the  -kin, 
and  are  not  separate  like  fish  scales. 

Reptiles  breathe  air  through  the  lung's.  Their  eggs  are  deposited  in  mud 
and  hatched  bv  the  heat  of  the  sun.  These  animals  live  in  or  Dear  water,  but 
like  to  lie  in  the  sun  on  land.     Thev  are  of  a  sluggish  nature. 

During  the  winter  they  burrow  in  the  mud  of  swamps  and  marshes  or  bide 
in  some  dark  place  and  lie  torpid  until  spring.  All  of  these  animals  feed  on 
other  animals. 

Some  reptiles  have  an  upper  and  a  lower  eyelid,  in  others  there  are  no 
evelids. 

The  body  of  the  tortoise  is  protected  by  a  box  formed  by  two  bony  shells. 
The  upper  part  is  called  the  carapace  and  the  lower  one  the  plastron.  When 
in  motion  the  head  and  legs  are  thrust  from  the  shell.  The  carapace  i-  really 
composed  of  the  backbone  and  ribs,  which  have  grown  together.  This  is 
covered  by  the  bony  plates  of  shell.  Around  the  edge  of  the  -hell  i-  a  series 
of  plates  for  binding  the  ends  of  the  ribs  together.  The  tortoise  ha-  two 
pairs  of  legs,  fitted  for  either  swimming  or  walking,  although  it  walk-  \. 
slowly.  The  jaws  are  toothless  and  are  made  of  hard,  bony  material,  which  i- 
extended  to  form  a  kind  of  beak. 

The  flesh  of  the  tortoise  is  used  for  food,  ami  it>  shell  i-  made  into  combs 
and  manv  other  fancv  articles. 

Some  tortoises  live  on  land.  Some  live  in  fresh  water  or  marshes  and 
others  live  in  the  ocean  and  are  called  turtle-.  The  land  tortoise  has  a  con- 
vex or  rounded  carapace  and  short  Legs.  The  sea  tortoise  or  turtle  ha-  a 
flat  carapace  and  long,  flat  legs  for  swimming.  The  fresh-water  tortoise  is  of 
a  shape  between  the  other  two.     Land  tortoises  feed  on  plants.     Sea  turtles 


84  outlines  m  nature  study. 

feed  on  seaweed  and   jellyfish.     Fresh-water   tortoises   feed    on   frogs   and 

fish. 

Crocodiles  and  alligators  are  very  much  alike.  The  crocodile  lias  a  longer 
head  and  tail,  and  its  feet  are  more  webbed  than  those  of  the  alligator.  It 
has  two  pairs  of  legs,  the  front  pah-  being  shorter  than  the  hack  pah*.  The 
jaws  contain  sharp  teeth,  set  in  sockets.  As  the  teeth  wear  out  or  are 
broken,  new  ones  grow  inside  of  the  old  ones.  Crocodiles  are  supplied  with 
a  pair  of  thin  valves  at  the  hack  part  of  the  throat  in  front  of  the  pas- 
sages from  the  nostrils.  By  closing  these  valves,  the  mouth  can  be  opened 
in  the  water  without  danger  of  suffocation,  as  the  animal  can  continue  to 
b rcathe  through  the  nostrils.  These  animals  can  hold  their  prey  under  water 
until  drowning  occurs  and  yet  keep  their  own  nostrils  above  water,  thus  being 
able  to  continue  breathing.  Then-  eyes  are  supplied  with  three  eyelids,  one 
of  which  is  a  skin  which  thev  can  draw  over  their  eves  from  the  side.  They 
are  covered  with  a  thick  scaly  skin,  which  can  be  tanned  into  leather. 

Snakes  have  no  legs,  but  crawl  along  the  ground  with  a  rising  and  falling 
motion  of  the  body.  The  backbone  of  the  snake  is  made  of  bones  which  are 
joined  together  by  a  ball  and  socket  joint.  To  each  of  these  bones  is  joined 
a  pair  of  ribs.  The  snake  uses  these  ribs  in  place  of  feet,  even  though  they 
are  under  the  skin.  The  ribs  of  the  snake  can  be  moved  backward  and  for- 
ward, and  as  these  are  moved  the  scales  on  the  under  side  of  the  body  catch  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  thus  assist  in  moving  the  body. 

The  Bcaly  skin  of  the  snake  is  of  different  colors  in  the  different  kinds  of 
snakes.  At  various  times  dining  the  summer  the  snake  changes  its  skin.  It 
becomes  dull  and  inactive,  stops  eating,  and  seeks  a  hiding  place.  When  the 
old  skin  slips  off,  the  snake  leaves  its  hiding  place  and  starts  out  in  its  new 
skin  to  seek  food.  Snakes  have  no  movable  eyelids.  The  eyes  are  covered  by 
the  skin,  which  has  two  transparent  places  directly  over  the  eyes. 

The  jaws  of  the  snake  are  joined  together  loosely  by  gristle,  so  that  the 
mouth  can  be  opened  wide  enough  to  swallow  toads,  frogs,  and  larger  animals 
easily.  The  bones  of  the  lower  jaw  are  separate  from  the  skull.  The  tongue 
of  the  snake  is  forked  and  is  used  for  feeling,  like  a  finger.  The  teeth  of  the 
snake  curve  backwards.  The  snake  does  not  chew  its  food,  but  uses  its  teeth 
for  holding  and  swallowing  its  prey. 

Most  snakes  are  poisonous.     The  fangs  contain  the  poison.     These  are  two 


OUTLINES   IX    NATUBB    STUDY. 

teeth  longer  than  the  other  teeth.  When  at  rest  these  turn  backward  like  the 
other  teeth.  When  they  are  in  use  they  are  thrown  forward  and  thrust  into 
the  victim. 

Some  snakes  kill  their  victims  by  winding  their  bodies  closely  around  and 
crushing:  them. 

The  noise  of  the  rattlesnake  is  made  bv  rattles  in  the  tail.  These  con- 
sist  of  a  series  of  button-like  plates.  The  age  is  indicated  by  the  number  of 
rattles,  one  for  each  year  of  its  life. 

The  skin  of  snakes  is  tanned  into  leather.  Indians  cover  their  arrowtips 
with  the  poison  from  the  fangs  of  a  snake. 

The  lizard  has  a  long,  rounded  body  covered  with  scales,  somewhat  like 
those  of  a  snake.  Some  have  two  pairs  of  short  legs  by  mean-  of  which,  to- 
gether with  the  scaly  skin,  they  can  travel  very  quickly.  <  >ther  Lizards  have  no 
legs.  The  tail  is  very  long,  sometimes  longer  than  the  rest  of  the  body. 
It  tapers  from  the  body  to  a  point. 

Some  lizards  are  supplied  with  sharp  teeth.  Some  have  forked  tongues  and 
some  have  tongues  that  are  club-shaped.  They  have  very  bright  eyes,  sup- 
plied with  two  or  three  movable  lids.  Lizards  vary  in  color,  but  they  are 
usually  green.     The  skin  of  the  lizard  is  sometimes  tanned  into  leather. 


FISH. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

What  is  a  fish?  Where  does  it  live?  What  do  6sh  breathe T 
What  are  the  organs  of  breathing  called  ?  How  many  gills  has  a 
fish?  Of  what  color  are  thev ?  Of  what  use  are  the}  Bow 
are  they  protected  ?  How  many  fins  has  a  fish  V  (  M'  what  use  are 
they?  How- do  these  differ  in  shape,  size,  and  structure  in  differ- 
ent fish?  To  what  parts  of  human  beings  <1<>  the  fins  of  fish 
roughly  correspond?  Compare  the  bones  of  fish  with  those  of 
other  animals. 


8Q  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

How  are  fish  generally  covered  ?  Why  is  the  covering  thick  ? 
Whv  is  it  smooth  ?  Why  is  it  oilv  ?  Why  is  it  composed  of  many 
scales  instead  of  being  in  one  piece?  In  what  direction  does  the 
free  edge  of  the  scale  extend  ? 

What  kind  of  covering  do  eels,  mackerel,  and  catfish  have? 

Examine  the  mouths  of  fishes  to  find  out  the  kind  of  food  each 
is  fitted  to  eat.  What  kinds  of  food  are  used  by  smifish,  catfish, 
trout,  minnows,  shark,  shad,  etc.  ? 

What  peculiarity  has  the  mouth  of  a  fish  that  feeds  on  other 
animals?  Why  has  the  shark  several  rows  of  three-cornered 
sharp  teeth  ? 

What  fish  wander  in  "schools"  from  place  to  place?  Name 
some  fish  that  live  in  one  place. 

Name  some  fish  that  live  in  salt  water,  and  some  that  live  in 
fresh  water. 

In  what  kind  of  water  are  the  following  found :  trout,  shark, 
herring,  catfish,  bass,  bluefish,  and  cod?  Why  is  not  the  whale 
a  fish?  Compare  the  color  of  fish  that  live  in  deep  water  with 
that  of  fish  that  live  in  shallow  water.  Why  are  some  fish  the 
color  of  sand  '.' 

What  kind  of  blood  have  fishes? 

Of  what  use  are  the  nostrils  of  a  fish? 

Of  what  use  are  mackerel,  sturgeon,  menhaden,  catfish,  cod, 
etc.  ?  Examine  as  many  fish  as  possible  in  reference  to  their  struc- 
ture, size,  color,  etc.  When  the  real  fish  cannot  be  observed,  pic- 
tures can  be  found  in  a  dictionary  or  encyclopedia.  Many  other 
books  can  be  found  in  a  public  library,  describing  their  food, 
homes,  modes  of  life,  etc. 


OUTLINES    IN    NATUBB    STUDY.  8' 


Summary. 


A  fish  is  a  cold-blooded  animal.     It  has  a  backbone  and  lives  in  the  wa1 
Fish  breathe  by  means  of  gills,  and  use  water  instead  of  air  for  that  pur- 
pose.    Water  is  taken  in  through  the  mouth,  and  after  the  fish  has  used  it 

for  the  purpose  of  purifying  the  blood,  it  is  sent  out  through   the  gills.     Tl 
gill  cover  opens  and  closes  regularly  for  the  purpose  of  letting  out  the  wafc 

Some  fish  are  covered  with  a  tough  skin,  but  most  fish  are  covered  with 
scales  which  overlap  each  other. 

The  scales  of  different  fish  vary  in  shape.  Some  are  circular  in  shape,  as 
those  of  the  carp.  Some  are  toothed,  as  those  of  the  perch.  Some  are  hard 
and  polished,  as  those  of  the  sturgeon.     Some  are  flat,  as  those  of  the  d< 

shark. 

The  seven  fins  of  a  fish  are  used  for  propelling,  balancing,  and  steering  it 

through  the  water. 

The  fins  vary  in  shape  in  different  fish.  Some  fish  have  fin-  longer  than 
they  are  wide.  Among  these  are  the  flounder,  halibut,  carp.  Others  h 
fins  wider  than  they  are  long,  as  the  pickerel,  cod,  trout,  and  catfish.  The 
fins  of  some  fish  are  supplied  with  hard,  bony  rays,  such  a-  the  rock,  perch, 
bass,  bluefish,  etc.  In  other  fish  the  rays  of  the  fins  are  of  tough  gristle. 
Among  these  are  the  minnow,  sardine,  and  herring. 

The  tails  of  fish  vary  in  shape.  In  some  the  tails  are  cut  in.  in  a  sharp 
point,  as  the  mackerel,  sardine,  shad,  and  herring.  The  tails  of  Borne  have  l 
almost  straight  edge,  as  the  cod  and  catfish.  In  some  fish  the  tails  are  slightly 
curved  in,  as  salmon,  halibut,  haddock,  perch,  and  black  bass.  In  others,  as 
the  minnow  and  sea  bass,  the  edge  curves  out  slightly.  The  tails  of  the  Bhark 
and  sturgeon  have  the  upper  point  much  longer  than  the  lower  one. 

Most  fish  are  supplied  with  an  air  bladder,  by  means  of  which  they  can 
float  in  the  water.     Some  fish  have  no  air  bladder  and  must   Bwim   all  the 

time,  as  the  shark. 

The  eves  of  some  fish  are  large.      Those  having  small   eyes   are  generally 

supplied  with  feelers. 

The  sense  of  smell  is  located  in  the  nostrils. 

The  mouths  of  fish  vary  according  to  their  habits  and  the  kind  of  food  which 


88  OUTLINES   IX    NATUBE    STUDY. 

thev  eat.  Those  that  are  flesh  eaters  nee<l  sharp  teeth.  Those  that  feed  on 
insects  have  do  teeth. 

Some  fish  live  only  in  salt   water  and  others  live  in  fresh  water.     Some 

* 

inhabit  quiet,  shallow  pools  and  lakes.  Others  prefer  deep  water  or  rapid 
stream-. 

Fish  that  inhabit  shallow  water  are  bright  in  color.  Those  that  inhabit 
deep  water  are  dull  in  color  on  the  upper  side. 

Some  fish  wander  from  place  to  place  in  "schools,"  while  others  live  in  one 
place. 

Some  fish  migrate  from  the  sea  to  the  river  at  certain  seasons,  as  the  shad 
and  the  sturgeon.     Others  migrate  from  the  river  to  the  sea,  as  the  eel. 

Fish  \  arv  in  size  from  the  tiny  minnow  to  the  large  shark  that  is  sometimes 
sixty  feel  in  length. 

A  young  minnow  is  almost  transparent.  If  we  examine  it  closely,  we  can 
see  that  the  head,  gills,  heart,  and  stomach  occupy  the  front  half  of  the  body. 
The  remainder  is  made  up  of  bone  and  muscle. 

Fish  are  useful  in  various  ways.  Some  are  used  for  food.  Others  fur- 
nish  us  with  oil,  and  from  others  material  for  fertilizing  the  ground  is  made. 
The  covering  of  the  air  bladder  of  the  sturgeon  is  used  for  making  isinglass. 

Most  fish  have  uests  of  some  kind  in  which  to  deposit  then*  eggs.  These 
sometimes  consist  of  a  hole  in  the  ground  or  gravel.  Two  fish  that  follow 
this  plan  are  the  salmon  and  the  trout.  Many  salt-water  fish  visit  fresh-water 
streams  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their  eggs. 

The  lamprey  eel  builds  a  nest  of  stones.  Many  fish  of  this  species  combine 
to  build  a  common  nest.  The  mouths  of  these  fish  are  capable  of  great  power 
of  suction.  By  this  means  they  succeed  in  raising  large  quantities  of  stones 
and  carrying  them  long  distances  for  the  purpose  of  building  the  nest. 

The  sunfish  uses  a  hole  in  the  sand  under  a  leafy  growth.  The  leaves  and 
stems  of  the  plant  surround  and  protect  the  nest,  which  is  made  of  stray  twigs. 

The  stickleback  makes  a  solid  nest  of  grasses,  twigs,  etc.,  and  then  makes 
a  hole  in  the  solid  nest  to  receive  the  eggs.  These  fish  will  work  at  nest- 
building  in  an  aquarium,  if  they  are  supplied  with  materials. 


OUTLINES    EN    NATUEB    BT1   DT.  39 


SHELLFISH. 

Conversational   Lesson. 

Examine  some  shellfish,  such  as  the  oyster,  clam,  mussel,  crab, 

lobster,  snail,  shrimp,  hermit  crab,  etc. 

Compare  the  coverings  of  these  animals  in  regard  to  size,  color, 
shape,  structure,  hardness,  and  how  the  parts  are  joined. 

Which  of  these  are  called  mollusks?  What  does  "mollusk" 
mean?  Which  are  called  bivalves  ?  Why?  Which  are  Crusta- 
cea ?     Why  are  these  so  called  ? 

To  what  part  of  other  animals  does  the  shell  of  each  of  these 

animals  roughly  correspond  ? 

What  is  the  color  of  the  crab  and  the  lobster  7  Of  what  advan- 
tage is  it  to  these  animals  to  have  the  color  of  seaweed  V  Which 
of  these  animals  are  the  color  of  sand  ?  W 1 1  \ -  7  Which  of  them 
have  the  hardest  covering?  Which  of  them  in  growing  cast 
their  shells?  How  do  the  others  increase  the  size  of  their  shells 
as  they  grow  ? 

Which  of  these  mollusks  move  from  place  to  place?  What 
organ  do  they  use  for  that  purpose  ? 

Why  is  the  flesh  of  the  clam  tougher  than  that  of  the  oyster? 
Why  is  its  shell  smoother  ? 

What  furnishes  food  for  the  oyster?     What   does  animalcule 

■ 

mean?  Examine  some  of  these  little  animals  with  a  magnifying 
glass. 

What  happens  to  the  valves  when  the  oyster  dies?  What  is 
the  cause  of  this  ? 

Find  the  lines  of  growth  on  the  outside  of  the  oyster  shells. 


90  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

Find  the  hinge  which  ioins  the  two  valves,  and  also  find  the  liga- 
ment.  Find  the  scar  in  the  shell  caused  by  the  attachment  of 
the  muscle,  and  the  line  of  scars  made  by  the  muscle  as  the 
oyster  grew  larger. 

On  what  do  each  of  the  other  shellfish  feed?  What  is  the 
difference  in  structure  between  those  that  feed  on  plants  and  those 
that  feed  on  animals  ? 

What  is  the  shape  of  a  snail's  shell?  What  is  the  operculum? 
Of  what  use  is  it  to  the  animal  that  has  it? 

Which  of  these  shellfish  do  we  use  for  food  ?  Which  do  we 
not  use  as  food  ?  Which  do  we  cook  while  they  are  yet  alive  ? 
Which  do  we  sometimes  eat  while  they  are  still  alive? 

AVhich  of  these  animals  are  found  in  salt  water?  in  fresh 
water  ? 

What  means  of  defense  has  each  of  these  animals  ?  Of  what 
advantage  to  the  era!)  is  its  ability  to  cast  a  claw? 

Consider  the  fact  that  all  shells  found  on  the  shore  of  salt  or 
fresh  water  have  been  at  some  time  the  homes  of  animals.  Some 
shells  are  spiral  in  shape  with  an  opening  at  one  side.  Examine 
a  number  of  shells  for  the  pnruose  of  finding  out  whether  the 
animal  was  covered  by  one  or  mure  shells. 

As  many  shellfish  as  possible  should  be  examined  with  the  aid 
of  a  magnifying  glass.  Various  kinds  of  snails  can  be  observed 
in  an  aquarium.  Pictures  of  many  varieties  of  shellfish  can  be 
seen  in  a  dictionary.  At  any  public  library  can  be  found  books 
containing  much  interesting  information  about  these  animals,  — 
their  homes,  habits,  etc. 


OUTLINES    LN    NAT  IKE    STUDY.  91 


Summary. 

Shellfish  mav  be  divided  into  several  classes,  according  t<>  tin*  nature  and 
arrangement  of  their  shells.  Some  shellfish  cast  their  shell-  and  grow  new 
ones  as  they  increase  in  size.  In  others  the  shell  is  a  part  of  the  animal,  t«» 
which  it  is  firmly  fastened.     The  shell  of  an  animal  of  this  kind  grows  \\  ith  it. 

Mi 

Animals  like  the  oyster,  clam,  and  mussel  form  one  da--.  These  are  called 
mollusks.     Animals  of  this  class  have  no  head. 

Another  class  is  composed  of  animals  like  the  lobster,  crab,  shrimp,  and 
barnacle.     Those  like  the  snail,  conch,  etc.,  form  another  class. 

Some  shellfish  live  in  salt  water  and  some  in  fresh  water. 

We  use  the  lobster,  crab,  oyster,  clam,  and  shrimp  for  food. 

The  clam:  The  clam  is  covered  bv  two  shells  joined  together  by  a  hintre 
and  a  ligament.  The  edge  at  whieh  the  two  shells  are  joined  i-  called  the 
hino-e  marsrin.     The  lisrament  is  inside  of  the  shells. 

The  hollow  places  on  the  inside  of  the  shells  show  where  the  animal  has 
been  attached  to  the  shells.  The  hollow  place  around  the  edge  is  caused  by 
the  thickened  mantle. 

The  shell  increases  in  size  as  the  clam  grows,  and  the  lines  of  growth  can 
be  seen  en  the  outside.  The  beak  is  found  on  thai  ride  of  the  shell  where 
the  lines  of  growth  are  smallest. 

Hold  the  shell  with  the  edge  on  which  is  the  ligament  uppermost,  with  the 
lio-ament  toward  the  bodv  and  the  Inline  away  from  it.  The  back  of  tin-  clam 
will  be  next  to  the  person  holding  it  and  the  front  of  the  clam  will  he 
at  the  edge  furthest  from  the  body.  The  siphon  openings  arc  at  the  hack  and 
the  foot  is  at  the  front  of  the  clam.     The  mouth  of  the  clam   i-  just   above 

the  foot. 

The  fleshy  part  close  to  the  edge  of  the  shell  is  called  the  mantle.  The 
edge  of  the  mantle  deposits  material  for  the  growth  of  the  shell  in  layers 
around  its  edge. 

The  mantle  deposits  the  pearly  material  which  sometimes  forms  the  inner 
coating  of  shells.  A  tiny  pebble  or  any  other  small  particle  that  get-  between 
the  mantle  and  the  shell  becomes  formed  into  a  pearl. 


92  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

The  clam  breathes  by  gills.  These  are  four  broad  folds  of  the  mantle. 
The  water  is  carried  to  and  from  the  gills  by  the  siphon. 

The  siphon  is  a  tube  divided  into  two  channels.  The  channel  toward  the 
free  edire  of  the  shell  is  the  opening  by  which  the  water  is  admitted.  The 
channel  nearest  the  hinge  carries  the  water  out  after  it  has  been  used  by  the  clam. 
The  siphon  can  be  extended  so  as  to  obtain  Mater  when  the  clam  has  buried 
itself  in  the  sand.     The  water  thus  obtained  also  supplies  the  clam  with  food. 

The  foot  which  is  at  the  front  of  the  clam  (opposite  the  siphon  openings)  is 
the  muscle  by  means  of  which  the  animal  crawls  or  burrows. 

■ 

The  clam  is  joined  to  its  shell  by  two  muscles. 

Tin:  oyster:  The  oyster  is  enclosed  in  two  shells.  The  left  valve  is  larger 
and  deeper  than  the  right,  and  is  the  one  which  is  fastened  to  the  oyster  bed. 
The  shells  are  ioined  by  a  hinge  and  a  ligament.  The  animal  is  attached  to 
it-  -hells  by  means  of  a  muscle.  This  muscle  is  used  to  draw  the  shell 
together.  The  dark  purplish  mark  on  the  inside  of  the  shell  shows  where  the 
oyster  has  been  joined  to  it. 

The  mantle  of  the  oyster  is  not  thickened  as  in  the  clam,  but  the  edges  are 
separate.  The  gills  by  which  the  oyster  breathes  are  four  in  number  and  are 
under  the  edges  of  the  mantle.     They  can  be  seen  by  removing  the  mantle. 

The  oyster  admits  the  water  between  its  shells  at  one  point  and  sends  it  out 
at  another.  It  has  no  special  tubes  or  canals  for  this  purpose.  The  oyster 
uses  this  water  for  breathing  and  also  feeds  on  the  little  animals  (called  ani- 
malcules) which  the  water  contains. 

The  dark  part  of  the  oyster  contains  the  stomach  and  liver,  and  the  hardened 
part  is  the  heart. 

Tin:  snail  :  Animals  like  the  snail,  conch,  etc.,  have  one  shell.  Some  snails 
live  in  fresh  water  and  some  in  salt  water,  and  some  live  on  land. 

Many  of  these  have  shells  which  are  twisted  in  the  form  of  a  spiral.  Some 
are  in  the  shape  of  a  long  spiral  and  others  in  the  shape  of  a  flat  spiral. 
Land  snails  jjrenerallv  have  flattened  shells. 

The  lines  of  growth  in  a  spiral  shell  are  parallel  to  the  opening  or  aperture. 

The  part  on  which  the  snail  rests  is  its  stomach.  It  uses  the  stomach  as  a 
foot  when  it  wishes  to  move. 


OUTLINES    IN    NATUBE    STUDY.  93 

A  shellfish  of  this  kind  has  a  head.  On  the  head  are  two  feelers.  It  lias 
four  eyes.  Two  are  on  the  head  and  look  like  tiny  black  dots,  and  two  are 
on  the  ends  of  the  feelers  or  tentacles. 

Some  snails  are  supplied  with  an  operculum.  When  the  snail  wish*  I  i 
withdraw  into  its  shell  it  can  close  the  opening  by  means  of  this  Bcale-like 
covering. 

Snails  that  have  an  operculum  are  supplied  with  gills,  and  use  water  for 
breathing  purposes.  All  others  have  a  lung,  and  breathe  air.  Those  that 
breathe  air  and  live  in  the  water  are  obliged  to  come  to  the  surface  al  in- 
tervals to  send  out  the  impure  ah  which  they  have  used,  and  get  a  fresh  sup- 

Snails  that  live  on  land  have  four  feelers  on  the  head  which  can  he  extended 
and  drawn  in. 

Some  shellfish  of  this  class  have  a  little  notch  in  the  edge  of  the  opening. 
Shellfish  having  this  notch  feed  on  the  flesh  of  other  animals.  Those  that  are 
not  notched  feed  on  vegetables,  leaves,  or  seaweed. 

Crustacea:  Shellfish  like  the  lobster  and  the  crab  belong  to  a  ela^s  that 
have  jointed  feet  or  legs.     They  resemble  seaweed  in  color. 

Then-  bodies  are  covered  with  a  crusty  shell,  not  so  hard  as  that  of  the 
oyster  and  clam.     They  are  made  up  of  rings  or  segments. 

Then-  bodies  consist  of  two  parts.  The  head  and  the  thorax  (or  chest) 
form  one  part,  and  the  abdomen  is  the  other  part. 

They  breathe  by  gills.  They  have  two  pairs  of  antenna'  or  feelers,  and 
always  more  than  eight  feet. 

When  the  shell  becomes  too  small,  they  cast  it  aside  and  a  larger  one  grows 
in  its  place.  Should  a  claw  be  lost  or  torn  off,  another  grows.  The  blood  of 
these  animals  is  colorless. 

The  lobster:  The  lobster's  body  is  somewhat,  cylindrical  in  shape.  On 
the  head  are  two  pahs  of  antennae  and  a  pair  of  compound  eyes. 

It  feeds  on  other  fish.  It  has  three  pairs  of  jaws,  —  one  pair  for  biting  and 
two  pairs  for  chewing. 

Attached  to  the  foremost  section  of  the  body  are  three  pairs  of  jaw-feet, 
which  it  uses  for  catching  its  prey.     On  this  part  of  the  body  are  also  live  pain 


94  OUTLINES   IN"   NATURE   STUDY. 

of  legs.  The  first  pair  of  legs  are  larger  than  the  others  and  the  right  one 
is  larger  than  the  left.  They  are  furnished  with  large  pincers.  One  claw  has 
a  hook  for  holding  its  prey,  and  the  other  has  sharp,  tooth-like  edges  for  tear- 
ing. The  second  and  third  pairs  are  also  supplied  with  pincers.  To  the  ab- 
domen are  attached  six  pairs  of  legs  called  "  swimmerets,"  which  are  broad 
and  fiat,  and  in  shape  and  use  are  somewhat  like  fins. 

The  crab  :  The  crab's  body,  instead  of  being  longer  than  it  is  wide, 
like  that  of  the  lobster,  is  wider  than  it  is  long.  The  abdomen  of  the  crab 
is  very  small. 

The  crab  has  a  two-part  body.  The  part  consisting  of  the  head  and  thorax 
is  much  larger  than  the  other  part.  It  has  a  groove  on  the  under  side  into 
which  the  abdomen  can  be  tacked.  It  has  four  eyes,  —  one  pah*  simple  and 
immovable,  and  the  other  pah-  compound. 

It  has  five  pairs  of  feet.  In  walking  it  uses  one  set  for  pushing,  and  the 
other  for  pulling.     It  can  move  backwards,  forwards,  and  sideways. 

The  crab  casts  its  skin  several  times  in  growing.  When  it  is  soft-shelled 
it  remains  buried  in  the  sand  with  only  its  eyes  and  feelers  exposed  until  the 
new  shell  is  formed. 

The  oyster  crab  lives  in  the  shell  of  the  oyster,  and  has  hooked  claws  so  that 
it  can  cling. 

Other  animals  of  this  kind  are  the  shrimp,  hermit  crab,  king  crab,  barnacle, 
etc. 


INSECTS- 

Conversational  Lesson. 

In  studying  about  insects  every  pupil  can  obtain  a  large  num- 
ber of  insects  for  the  purpose  of  examining  their  structure  with 
a  magnifying  glass. 

Insects  can  be  captured  with  a  scoop-net,  killed  in  a  poison  jar, 
fastened  on  a  mounting  block  to  dry,  and  then  mounted  on  card- 


OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY.  95 

board  or  in  a  case  for  future  use  and  observation  in  a  permanent 

collection. 

In  the  poison  jar  insects  can  be  killed  without  being  cither 
wounded  or  tortured.     The  jar  is  prepared  as  follows  :  — 

Into  a  low,  wide-mouthed  jar  drop  a  lump  of  potassium  cyanide 
about  one  half  the  size  of  an  egg.  Cover  this  with  a  paste  about 
as  thick  as  molasses,  made  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  tepid  water. 
Always  keep  the  jar  air-tight.  Raw  cotton  saturated  with  chloro- 
form can  also  be  used. 

A  collection  of  the  different  parts  of  the  various  insects  (anten- 
nas, legs,  wings,  etc.)  should  also  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
parison. These  can  be  fastened  to  cardboard,  and  drawings  <>t' 
the  separate  parts,  as  well  as  of  the  whole  insect,  should  be 
made  from  these  real  objects. 

In  order  to  study  the  habits  of  insects,  how  they  move  from 
place  to  place,  how  they  eat  their  food,  etc.,  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  them  alive. 

For  this  purpose  ajar  containing  soft  earth  can  be  used.  Keep 
the  jar  covered  with  net,  and  supply  the  insects  placed  in  it  with 
the  proper  kind  of  food. 

Examine  a  number  of  insects  with  a  mamifying  glass,  and  find 
out  how  many  parts  make  up  the  body,  and  the  formation  of 
each  part  or  section.  Of  what  advantage  is  it  to  the  insect  to 
have  its  body  formed  in  rings  or  segments  ? 

The  word  "insect"  means  "to  cut  in."  Why  was  this  name 
applied  to  insects  ?  Are  the  three  parts  joined  exactly  alike  in 
all  insects?     Are  the  rings  seen  equally  well  in  all  insect-  . 

What  organs  or  appendages  are  joined  to  the  middle  section 
or  thorax?  How  many  legs  has  each  insect  V  On  which  part  of 
the  body  are  they?     How  are   they  arranged   on   the   thorax? 


96  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

Find  out  for  what  purpose  they  seem  best  fitted  in  the  different 
insects,  —  walking,  running,  jumping,  etc.  Find  out,  also,  what 
the  surfaces  are  like,  and  what  kind  of  legs  each  has.  Name 
some  that  have  thick  legs ;  some  that  have  long  legs,  etc. 

Do  all  insects  have  the  same  number  of  wings?  Name  some 
that  have  no  wings;  some  that  have  two  wings;  some  that  have 
four  wings.  On  which  part  of  the  body  are  the  wings  placed? 
How  do  the  wings  of  insects  differ  in  structure,  size,  and  shape? 

Examine  the  mouths  of  insects.  Mention  some  insects  that 
have  jaws  and  some  that  have  a  proboscis.  Insects  that  feed  on 
other  insects  have  sharp  jaws  and  also  sharp  claws.  Examine 
the  eyes  and  find  out  how  many  each  has  and  of  what  kind. 

Examine  the  antennae  of  different  insects.  Where  are  they 
placed  ?  Of  what  use  are  they  ?  How  do  they  differ  in  size  and 
structure  ? 

Examine  the  grasshopper.  How  many  wings  has  it  ?  Compare 
its  wings  in  reference  to  structure,  size,  shape,  and  use.  What 
other  insects  have  wings  similar  to  those  of  the  grasshopper? 
How  do  these  insects  arrange  their  wings  when  they  are  not  fly- 
ing? Why  are  they  called  "straight-winged"  insects?  Are  the 
legs  of  a  grasshopper  all  alike  ?  How  many  parts  in  each  leg  ? 
For  what  does  it  use  its  different  legs  ?  How  does  it  walk  ?  Of 
what  use  are  the  back  legs  ? 

Examine  roaches,  crickets,  katydids,  walking  sticks,  etc. 
Which  of  these  have  no  wings  for  flying  ?  Examine  their  legs. 
Which  are  formed  for  running  ?  which  for  jumping  ?  Are  the 
surfaces  of  their  legs  alike  ?  Examine,  also,  the  eyes,  mouths, 
and  antennae  carefully  and  find  the  breathing  holes. 

Consider  the  fact  that  their  bodies  are  formed  according  to 
the  means  by  winch  they  obtain  food,  and  that  they  are  of  a  color 


OUTLINES   IN    NATURE    STUDY.  97 

which  is  the  greatest  protection  in  their  respective  haunts.  Those 
that  make  their  homes  on  or  near  water  are  transparent.  Those 
whose  homes  are  in  sand,  grass,  on  stems  of  plants  or  branches  of 
trees  are  colored  accordingly. 

Examine  the  cicada  or  harvest  fly.     Compare  its  wings  with 
those  of  other  insects  just  examined.    What  differences  are  ther< 
How  many  rings  can  be  counted  in  its  body?     Examine   each 
part  carefully. 

Another  class  of  insects  are  called  "sheath-winged'  insects. 
Among  them  are  the  ladybird,  potato  bug,  squash  bug,  water 
beetle,  etc.  Why  are  they  called  "sheath-winged"?  Examine 
the  wings  and  wing  covers,  and  all  of  the  appendages.  Are  all 
three  parts  of  the  body  free  to  move  ? 

Notice  how  the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  joined  in  different 
insects.  Some  become  very  narrow  where  they  join,  and  others 
are  broad. 

Why  are  moths  and  butterflies  called  "scaly-winged  '   insects  '.' 
What  do  the  scales  look  like?     Compare  the  mouth  of  these  in- 
sects with  that  of  other  insects.    What  kind  of  food  do  they  u> 
What  happens  to  the  proboscis  when  it  is  not  in  use  ? 

What  difference  is  there  between  the  wings  of  a  moth  and 
those  of  a  butterfly?  between  the  feelers  of  a  moth  and  those  of 
a  butterfly?  Which  of  these  insects  flies  at  night  ?  which  flies  in 
the  daytime?  which  has  a  covered  cocoon?  which  has  a  naked 
cocoon?     Why  does  a  moth  cover  its  cocoon  with  a  leal  '. 

How  many  wings  has  a  fly?  how  many  has  a  mosquito? 
Where  are  the  wings  of  these  insects?  Are  the  rings  of  the 
thorax  movable  as  they  are  in  the  butterfly?  Examine  the  pro- 
boscis of  a  fly.  It  cannot  be  coiled  up  like  thai  of  the  butterfly, 
neither  is  it  a  pointed  beak  like  that  of  the  cicada.    What  enables 


98  OUTLINES   IS    NATURE   STUDY. 

the  fly  to  walk  on  the  ceiling  ?     What  takes  the  place  of  muscles 
in  the  eyes  of  the  fly  ? 

Examine  the  wings  of  bees  and  wasps.  Why  are  insects  of 
this  kind  called  "  transparent-winged"  ?  How  many  wings  have 
these  insects?  Are  the  wings  of  each  insect  all  of  the  same 
size  ? 

Examine  the  dragon  fly.  Compare  its  wings  with  those  of 
other  insects  in  reference  to  structure  and  position.  Examine  the 
feelers,  legs,  claws,  mouth,  and  eyes. 

If  all  of  these  insects  cannot  be  obtained,  examine  as  many  of 
them  as  possible  or  examine  any  insects  that  can  be  obtained. 
Examine  and  compare  the  bodies  of  these  insects  in  reference  to 
structure,  shape,  size,  manner  in  which  the  three  sections  are 
joined,  and  amount  of  motion  of  which  the  body  is  capable.  Ex- 
amine and  compare  wings,  legs,  antennae,  eyes,  and  mouth. 

What  is  a  cocoon?  Who  made  it?  Where  did  the  caterpillar 
come  from  ?  How  many  legs  has  the  caterpillar  ?  Are  they  all 
used  for  walking?  How  are  the  legs  arranged  on  the  body? 
On  what  does  the  caterpillar  feed  ?  How  many  rings  or  segments 
in  its  body  ?  how  many  in  the  thorax  ?  How  many  breathing 
holes  has  it? 

When  the  insect  leaves  the  eo*cr  what  name  is  given  to  it? 
When  the  larva  lives  in  the  cocoon  which  it  spins,  in  what  stage 
of  its  life  is  it  ? 

What  names  are  given  to  the  larvae  of  flies,  mosquitoes,  and 
beetles  ? 

Mention  some  insects  that  do  not  pass  into  the  chrysalis  or 
pupa  state.  What  name  is  applied  to  this  kind  of  insect  from 
the  time  it  leaves  the  egg  until  its  wings  are  fully  grown  ? 

How  many  times  does  the  nymph  cast  its  skin  ? 


OUTLINES    IN    NATri:i:    STI'DY.  99 

Of  what  uses  are  insects  to  us?  to  plants?  Of  what  uses  .ire 
plants  to  insects  ? 

Are  the  spider  and  daddy  longlegs  insects  '.'     Why  V 
In  any  dictionary  or  encyclopedia  will   be  found   pictures  of 
many  insects.     In  any  public  library  are  books  containing  inter- 
esting accounts  of  insects, —  their  habits,  their  homes,  modes  of 
life,  etc. 

Summary. 

Insects  are  animals  having  a  body  which  consists  of  three  parts  or  sections. 
Each  insect  has  three  pahs  of  jointed  legs. 

The  three  parts  are  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen.  Each  part  is 
protected  on  the  outside  by  a  case  made  up  of  rings  or  segments.  It  has  no 
bones  and  no  red  blood.  Some  insects  have  no  wings,  some  have  one  pair, 
and  some  have  two  pairs. 

The  thorax  is  made  up  of  three  rings  or  segments,  and  one  pair  of 
legs  is  fastened  to  each  segment  by  means  of  a  ball  and  socket  joint  [nsects 
in  walking  use  the  three  pairs  of  legs  alternately.  The  wings  are  fastened 
to  the  second  and  third  segments  of  the  thorax.  The  segmenl  nearest  the 
head  never  has  wings  attached  to  it. 

The  eyes  of  insects  vary  in  number.  They  are  sometimes  simple  and  some- 
times compound. 

A  compound  eye  has  many  sides  or  facets,  and  looks  very  much  like  a  tiny 
jewel  that  has  been  cut. 

Mouths  of  insects  differ  according  to  the  kind  of  food  which  is  eaten  or 
the  uses  to  which  they  are  put  Insects  that  gnaw  have  two  pairs  of  jaws. 
The  mandibles  are  used  for  biting  and  the  maxilla'  arc  used  for  chewing. 

The  jaws  of  insects  move  from  side  to  side.  Those  Insects  that  feed  on 
other  insects  have  rather  long,  sharp  jaws,  supplied  with  a  kind  of  toothed 
edge.     Those  that  feed  on  vegetables  have  broad,  blunt  jaws. 

Insects  that  suck  have  a  proboscis. 

Some  insects  that  suck  and  also  bite  are  supplied  with  a  proboscis  and 
jaws. 


100  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

An  insect  passes  through  several  stages  before  it  becomes  the  adult  insect. 
From  the  egg  is  hatched  out  the  larva  or  cater} >illar.  The  caterpillar  sheds 
it-  coat  several  times  and  finally  becomes  the  winged  insect. 

The  larva  or  caterpillar,  after  casting  its  skin  several  times,  spins  a  cocoon 
in  which  it  remains  quiet  and  inactive.  From  the  cocoon  comes  the  winged 
insect.  Among  insects  of  this  kind  are  butterflies,  moths,  tlies,  mosquitues, 
and  beetles. 

Other  inserts  have  no  wings  when  they  are  young.  They  shed  their  skins 
several  time-,  and  gradually  the  wings  develop.  These  insects  do  not  spin  a 
cocoon  or  pass  through  the  inactive  state.  Among  these  are  the  grasshopper,, 
katydid,  dragon  fly,  cricket,  etc. 

Many  insects  that  do  not  spin  a  cocoon  have  two  stages  of  existence, — 
the  nvmph  and  the  winged. 

Insects  grow  only  while  casting  their  skins,  and  cease  to  grow  as  soon 
as  the  wings  have  developed.  During  the  time  of  growth  when  the  old 
skin  becomes  too  small,  a  new  one  forms  underneath  and  the  old  one  splits 
d<>\vn  the  back. 

The  life  of  an  insect  that  spins  a  cocoon  is  divided  into  the  following  stages 
after  it  leaves  the  egg  :  (1)  larva,  or  caterpillar ;  (2)  pupa,  or  chrysalis ;  (3) 
imago,  or  winged  insect. 

Scai.v-wixged  ixsects  :  This  class  of  insects  includes  moths  and 
butterflies. 

The  butterriv  passes  through  three  stages  of  existence,  as  caterpillar, 
chrysalis,  and  winged  insect  or  imago.  The  body  of  the  caterpillar  is 
composed  of  thirteen  rings  or  segments.  These  are  connected  by  tiny  mus- 
cles. 1  i \-  alternately  contracting  and  relaxing,  the  rings  are  drawn  together 
and  separated  when  the  caterpillar  crawls.  It  is  supplied  with  two  pairs  of 
jaws.  In  addition  to  three  pairs  of  legs  on  the  first  three  segments,  it  is 
supplied  with  five  pairs  of  false  legs.  Four  pairs  are  on  the  middle  of  the 
body  and  one  pair  are  on  the  last  segment. 

The  caterpillar  sheds  its  skin  four  times  as  it  grows,  and  then  it  spins  its 
cocoon.  The  inactive  stage  in  the  butterfly  is  called  the  chrysalis,  in  other 
insects  it  is  called  the  pupa  state. 

The  cocoon  is  spun  from  the  body  of  the  caterpillar.     The  spinnerets  are 


OUTLINES    IX    NAT  nil-:    STUDY.  1<»1 

en  the  head.  It  turns  its  head  round  and  round  more  than  twenty  thousand 
times  in  spinning  the  cocoon.  The  caterpillar  eats  enough  food  to  lasl  while 
it  is  in  the  chrysalis  state,  as  no  insects  eat  during  the  period  of  inactivity. 
The  cocoon  of  the  butterfly  is  naked,  while  that  of  the  moth  La  covered. 

The  butterfly  comes  out  of  the  cocoon.  It  has  two  pairs  of  wine  The 
wings  and  body  are  covered  with  tiny  scales.  These  look  like  dusl  and  can 
be  easily  rubbed  off.  AV hen  the  insect  is  at  rest  one  pair  of  wings  is  held 
erect.     It  has  compound  eyes  and  a  proboscis. 

The  proboscis  is  really  the  lower  lip  extended  into  a  tube.    It  can  be  coiled 
up  when  not  in  use.     The  moth  and  the  butterfly  are  the  only  insects  that  h 
a  mouth  of  this  kind. 

The  two  feelers  of  the  butterfly  have  knob-like  ends. 

Straight- winged    insects:    The  grasshopper  or  locust  has  four  wings. 

The  back  pah*  of  wings  are  used  for  flying,  and  when  not  in  use  they  are 
folded  together  like  a  fan  and  covered  by  the  straight,  narrow,  parchment- 
like front  wings. 

It  sheds  skin  five  times  and  then  the  wings  begin  to  appear.  It  becomes 
the  complete  insect  supplied  with  wings  when  it  casts  its  skia  the  sixth  time. 

It  has  a  pah*  of  compound  eyes  and  also  three  simple  eyes.  It  has  two 
pairs  of  jaws  for  biting  and  chewing.  These  insects  produce  their  peculiar 
noise  by  rubbing  their  legs  against  the  wing  covers. 

In  walking,  the  grasshopper  uses  the  first  right  leg  and  second  left  leg 
together.  Then  it  uses  the  first  left  leg  and  second  righl  leg  together. 
The  third  pah*  are  dragged  along  in  walking,  but  are  used  id  jumping.  They 
are  straightened  out  when  the  insect  flic-. 

When  preparing  to  jump,  the  fore  legs  are  straightened  and  the  hind  L< 
are  bent,  with  the  lower  section  resting  on  the  ground. 

Some  insects  in  this  class  are  the  cricket,  katydid,  walking  stick,  praying 
bug,  locust,  and  green  grasshopper. 

Sheath-w-inged  insects:   In  another  da—  of  insects,  the  front   pair  of 
wings  are  hard  and  horny,  and  are  used  to  cover  the  flying  wings  when  th< 
are  not  in  use.     In  flight,  the  wing  covers  stand  straight  ou1  from  the  body. 

These  insects  have  jaws  for  chewing.     Their  legs  are  adapted   for  walking. 


102  OUTLINES   IX   NATXJBE   STUDY. 

The  larva  is  called  a  grub  and  the  succeeding  state  is  called  the  pupa.     The 
potato  hug,  May  beetle,  firefly,  and  ladybird  are  insects  of  this  kind. 

Ti:  \\>i- a i: i:\t- winged  insects:  Bees,  wasps,  ants,  and  hornets  belong  to 
another  class  of  insects.  These  insects  have  four  wings,  all  of  which  are 
transparent  The  front  wings  are  larger  than  the  back  wings.  The  upper 
and  lower  wings  on  each  side  of  the  body  are  hooked  together  in  Hying. 
These  insects  have  jaws  for  biting,  but  some  of  them  have  also  a  sort  of  pro- 
boscis. 

The  bodies  of  bees  are  supplied  with  hairs  for  the  purpose  of  gathering 
pollen  from  flowers.  The  pollen  thus  gathered  is  placed  in  pockets  on  the 
back  legs. 

In  the  wasp  there  is  a  very  slender  connection  between  the  thorax  and 
the  abdomen.     In  bees  the  connection  is  broad. 

Two- winged  insects  :  The  fly,  mosquito,  and  crane  fly  belong  to  this 
class.  They  have  two  stiff  wings  which  cannot  be  folded.  They  also  have 
a  pair  of  balancers  in  place  of  the  second  pair  of  wings.  The  larvae  of  the 
fly  are  called  maggots.  The  fly  has  a  short,  stiff  proboscis  with  knob-like 
ends,  which  it  can  open.  The  proboscis  can  be  extended  when  it  is  being 
used,  and  drawn  in  when  it  is  not  in  use. 

The  eggs  of  the  mosquito  are  stood  up  on  end,  side  by  side  in  a  cluster, 
which  floats  in  the  water.  The  larvae  are  called  wrigglers.  These  crawl 
from  the  lower  end  of  the  egg.  The  breathing  tube,  which  is  near  the  tail,  is 
always  kept  above  the  surface  of  the  water  until  the  insect  passes  into  the 
pupa  state.  When  the  winged  insect  is  ready  to  leave  the  cocoon,  it  crawls 
out  and  uses  the  cocoon  for  a  boat.  The  proboscis  of  the  mosquito  is  a  tube 
formed  by  the  upper  and  lower  lip.     It  contains  a  bristle-like  sting. 

Crane  flies  resemble  mosquitoes.  They  can  be  seen  in  swarms  usually  at 
twilight     They  are  very  tiny  insects  that  can  neither  walk  nor  fly  very  far. 

Dragon  fly  :  Another  insect  with  which  we  are  familiar  is  the  dragon 
fly.  Its  four  gauze-like  wings  are  of  nearly  the  same  size.  It  flies  rapidly 
from  place  to  place,  hunting  for  insects,  uj)on  which  it  feeds.  At  times 
it  stops  flying  and  rests  for  a  moment,  but  it  does  not  walk.     It  has  two 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  103 

pairs  of  jaws  for  biting  and  chewing.  Its  thorny  legs  have  long  claws  at 
the  tip.     It  has  large,  compound  eyes. 

Like  the  mosquito,  it  places  its  eggs  in  water  or  on  the  Btems  of  plants 
that  are  under  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  nymph  has  a  large  lower  lip  supplied  with  two  ]i< »< »ks  with  which  it 
catches  its  prey. 


IV.    NATURAL   SCIENCE. 


THE  SUN. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Where  is  west?  Why?  Where  is  east?  Why?  Where 
is  the  sun  at  noon?  In  what  direction  do  the  shadows  point 
at  noon?  At  what  time  this  morning  did  the  sun  rise?  At 
what  time  this  evening  will  it  set?  Does  the  sun  rise  on  a 
cloudy  day?  Does  the  sun  rise  at  the  same  time  every  day? 
On  which  day  in  the  year  does  the  sun  rise  earliest  ?  On  which 
day  does  the  sun  set  latest?  On  the  day  after  this  does  the 
sun  rise  earlier  or  later  ?  Until  which  day  of  the  year  will  it 
continue  to  rise  a  little  later  each  day  ?  Which  is  the  shortest 
day  of  the  year?  Why?  Does  the  sun  rise  earlier  or  later  on 
the  following  day?  Until  which  day  of  the  year  mil  it  continue 
to  rise  a  little  earlier  each  day  ?     Which  is  the  longest  day  of  the 

year  ? 

Does  the  sun  rise  earlier  in  summer  or  in  winter  ?  When  are 
the  days  longer  than  the  nights  ?  When  are  the  nights  longer 
than  the  days  ?     When  are  they  equal  ? 

Does  the  sun  rise  in  exactly  the  same  place  every  day?  In 
which  direction  does  the  sun  appear  to  travel  each  day  ?  When 
does  it  rise  exactly  in  the   east  and  set  exactly  in  the  west? 

When  does  it  rise  furthest  north  ?  When  does  it  rise  furthest 
south?     Where  is  the  sun's  path  when  the  days  are   longest? 

104 


OUTLINES    IN'   NATUBB   STUDY.  105 

when  they  are  shortest?  when  the  dnvs  and  nighta  are  equal? 

What  is  twilight?     What  causes  twilight? 

What  is  meant  by  "  noon  "  ?  When  is  it  ooon?  How  Ion-  is 
noon?  Is  the  sun  always  at  the  same  place  at  noon  ?  In  which 
season  are  the  shadows  longest  at  noon?  Is  it  noon  at  the  same 
time  all  over  the  world  ?     Why  ? 

What  is  meant  by  "a.m.  "  ?  by  "p.m.  "  ?  Where  is  the  bud  at 
night?  Which  are  warmer,  long  days  or  short  days?  Win  ? 
Which  months  are  the  hottest  ?     Why  ? 

Which  side  of  the  schoolhouse  is  the  coldest?  Why  V  Which 
side  of  the  schoolhouse  has  the  lightest  rooms  ?     Why  V 

When  is  it  warmer,  before  sunrise  or  after  sunset?  Why? 
Which  is  warmer,  autumn  or  spring?     Why  '.' 

What  actually  happens  when  the  sun  appears  to  rise,  move 
across  the  sky,  and  set  ? 

If  any  one  traveled  from  the  earth  toward  the  sun.  at  the  rate 
of  six  hundred  miles  per  day,  how  long  would  it  take  to  reach  the 
sun  ? 

Of  wdiat  use  is  the  sun  to  plants  ?  to  animals  ?  to  the  air  ? 

How  does  moisture  get  into  the  air  ? 


Summary. 

The  sun  is  a  laro;e  ball  of  highly  heated  material     It  is  more  than  ninety 

millions  of  miles  away  from  us  and  it  is  more  than  a  million  times  as  lai 
the  earth. 

The  sun  gives  us  light  and  heat.  It  causes  vapor  t«»  rise  from  the  surface 
of  streams,  thus  making  the  air  moist.  Without  the  BUD  we  would  have  no 
evaporation,  no  rain,  no  rivers,  no  plants. 

The  earth  revolves  on  its  axis  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  or  one  day,  and 


106  OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 

the  sun  is  shining  on  one  half  of  the  earth  at  a  time.  The  sun  rises  in  the 
east,  travels  across  the  sky  with  a  southerly  curve,  and  sets  in  the  west. 

The  sun  travels  across  the  sky  by  a  slightly  different  path  each  day.  Start- 
ing at  the  close  of  autumn  and  the  beginning  of  winter,  the  sun  is  traveling 
over  its  path  furthest  south.  It  then  takes  a  path  a  little  more  to  the  north 
each  dav  for  six  months.  When  spring  ends  and  summer  begins,  it  is  trav- 
eling over  the  path  furthest  north.  The  sun  travels  over  its  middle  path 
at  the  close  of  summer  and  at  the  close  of  winter. 

The  paths  that  are  furthest  north  and  south  are  directly  over  that  part  of 
the  earth's  surface  indicated  by  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn. 

The  middle  path  is  directly  over  that  part  of  the  earth's  surface  indicated 

by  the  equator. 


THE  MOOR 


Conversational  Lesson. 


Where  is  the  moon  ?  Of  what  use  is  it  to  us  ?  What  causes 
it  to  give  light  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  moon  ?  Does  the 
moon  always  appear  to  us  to  have  the  same  shape  ?  What  is 
meant  by  the  phases  of  the  moon  ?  Where  is  the  sun  when  we 
see  the  new  moon?  Are  the  ends  of  the  crescent  toward  the 
sun  or  away  from  it  ?  What  is  the  length  of  time  from  one  new 
moon  until  the  next?  Why  was  the  name  " month"  given  to 
that  period  of  time  ?     What  does  the  full  moon  look  like  ? 

Where  is  the  sun  when  we  see  the  full  moon  ?  Which  side  of 
the  moon  is  always  light  ?  What  causes  the  moon  to  seem  to 
change  its  shape  ? 

Where  do  we  first  see  the  new  moon  ?  When  does  the  new 
moon  appear  ?     Does  the  moon  appear  each  evening  in  the  same 


OUTLINES    IN    NAT  IRK    STUDY,  107 

place?     Does  it  appear  earlier  or  later  each  night  after  we  . 

the  new  moon  ? 

What  are  the  dark  places  0n  the  moon  tli.it  seem  to  form  ;i 
face?  Is  it  hot  or  cold  on  the  moon?  Is  there  any  rain  on  the 
moon  ?     Why  ? 

Does  anything  grow  on  the  moon?  What  motion  has  the 
moon  ? 

What  is  meant  by  an  eclipse  of  the  moon?  In  what  positions 
are  the  earth,  moon,  and  sun  when  there  is  an  eclipse  <>t'  the 
moon  ? 

Watch  the  moon  and  make  drawings  to  show  its  various  aha] 
as  we  see  them. 

If  the  new  moon  is  examined  each  night  with  opera  glass*  . 
the  ragged  edge  formed  by  mountains  can  be  seen. 


Summary. 

The  moon  is  a  ball  or  globe  that  moves  around  the  earth  <m<v  in  twenty- 
nine  days.     It  is  about  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  miles  away  from 
It  has  neither  light  nor  heat.     It  is  visible  to  us  because  of  the  sunlight  that 
shines  on  it. 

The  moon  appears  to  change  its  shape.  These  different  shapes  are  cam 
by  the  moon's  changing  its  position  with  reference  t<>  the  sun  in  movi 
round  the  earth. 

When  the  moon  is  in  the  shadow  of  the  earth  and  when  it  is  between  the 
earth  and  the  sun,  we  cannot  see  it.  When  it  is  a  short  distance  toward  one 
side  of  the  sun,  it  looks  like  a  crescent  or  curved  line  of  light  When  this 
first  makes  its  appearance  it  is  called  the  new  moon. 

The  half  of  the  moon  that  is  toward  the  sun  is  always  light  :  when  the 
moon  is  "new,"  we  can  see  only  the  narrow  arc  of  lighl  that  is  Dearest  to  us. 

The  new  moon  is  seen  in  the  west  just  after  the  Bun  Bets.     It  appears  Car- 


108  OUTLINES    IX   XATUKE    STUDY. 

ther  toward  the  east  and  a  little  later  each  night.  For  this  reason  we  see 
more  and  more  of  the  light  surface  until  we  see  the  whole  of  the  light  half. 
It  is  then  called  the  full  moon,  and  it  rises  in  the  east  directly  opposite  to  the 
place  where  the  sun  sets. 

As  it  continues  its  travels  round  the  earth  we  see  less  and  less  of  the  lighted 
surface  until  no  part  of  it  is  visible. 

These  different  shapes  of  the  moon  are  called  its  phases.  Some  of  the 
names  applied  to  the  different  phases  are  new  moon,  first  quarter,  full  moon, 
gibbous  moon,  etc. 


STARS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

What  becomes  of  the  stars  in  the  daytime  ? 

What  are  the  differences  between  planets  and  fixed  stars? 

Which  are  farther  from  us,  clouds  or  stars  ? 

How  can  the  North  Star  be  found  ? 

In  what  season  does  the  sun  seem  to  get  nearer  to  the  North 
Star  each  day  ? 

Of  what  use  is  the  North  Star  to  mariners? 

Why  is  it  used  instead  of  the  other  stars  ? 

On  what  part  of  the  earth  would  the  North  Star  be  directly 
overhead  ? 

How  many  stars  are  in  "  the  Dipper  "  ? 

What  motion  does  the  Dipper  seem  to  have  ? 

Which  of  the  stars  in  this  group  are  called  "  pointers  "  ?     Why  ? 

Is  the  Dipper  always  in  the  sky  at  night  ? 

In  which  season  does  the  Dipper  appear  above  the  North  Star? 

What  effect  on  the  stars  has  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  ? 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY.  109 


Summary. 

All  the  stars  that  we  see  in  the  sky  are  fixed  stare  except  the  planets. 

The  eight  planets  are  worlds,  one  of  which  is  the  earth.  Like  tl  rth, 
they  all  move  round  the  sun.  They  all  shine  with  a  steady  Light  The 
planets  receive  then*  light  from  the  sun. 

The  fixed  stars  do  not  change  their  places.  They  are  really  oth<  r  - 
very  far  away  from  us.  The  fixed  stars  twinkle.  Light  travels  at  the  t 
of  one  hundred  and  eighty-six  thousand  miles  in  a  BeconcL  and  it  takes  th 
years  for  the  light  from  the  nearest  star  to  reach  us. 

The  fixed  stars  are  balls  of  highly  heated  material,  like  the  sun.  The 
materials  of  which  thev  are  made  are  in  a  molten  state,  something  like  the 
iron  in  a  rolling-mill  when  it  is  taken  from  the  furnace. 

If  the  sun  and  the  planets  that  revolve  around  it  could  be  looked  at  from 
the  nearest  star,  the  sun  would  look  like  a  star  and  the  eight  planets  would 
look  like  a  tiny  cloud  of  silvery  light. 

The  reason  that  the  stars  appear  to  us  to  move  is  because  the  earth  is 
changing  its  position  daily  in  its  journey  round  the  sun. 

The  Xorth  Star,  or  Pole  Star,  is  always  seen  in  the  Bame  pla  It  is 
directly  over  the  Xorth  Pole  on  the  earth's  Burface.  The  other  Btars  and 
star  groups  appear  to  move  from  east  to  west  across  the  sky. 

All  of  the  stars  that  are  seen  in  the  north  appear  to  move  round  th<  North 
Star.     In  twenty-four  hours  they  complete  the  circuit  ami  travel  a  little  beyond 

The  Dipper,  so  called  on  account  of  its  shape,  is  ;i  group  of  seven  stars  that 
appears  to  move  round  the  Xorth  Star.  The  two  stars  that  are  farthest  from 
the  handle  are  called  "pointers,"  because    they    always    point    toward   the 

Xorth  Star. 

The  MilkvAVavis  an  irregular  band  of  silvery  light  which  pass  -  -  the 

sky.     It  is  made  up  of  myriads  of  stars. 

As  the  earth  moves  round  the  sun.  we  look  at  the  -tars  from  one  place  one 
night  and  from  a  place  farther  along  in  the  earth's  journey  the  next  night. 
It  takes  one  year  for  the  earth  to  trav<  1  round  the  sun.  For  this  reason,  the 
stars  which  we  see  at  nine  o'clock  to-night,  we  shall  not  -  smu  in  the 
same  place   at  the  same  time  for  one  year.     Six  months  after  the   si     B  are 


110  OUTLINES   IX   NATURE   STUDY. 

seen  rising  in  the  east,  they  will  be  seen  at  the  same  hour  setting  in  the 
west. 

If  we  observe  the  stars  on  different  nights,  we  shall  notice  that  they  appear 
at  a  given  point  a  few  minutes  earlier  each  night.  For  instance,  on  Octo- 
ber 1,  at  ten  o'clock,  we  see  the  stars  in  the  same  positions  that  we  do  at  four 
minutes  of  ten  on  October  2.  On  October  3  we  shall  see  them  in  the  same 
positions  at  eight  minutes  of  ten.  On  October  5  they  will  be  seen  in  the 
same  positions  at  9.45.  This  difference  in  time  amounts  to  one  hour  in  two 
weeks,  or  two  hours  in  one  month. 

Some  of  the  stars  and  star  groups  are  the  Pole  Star,  the  Dipper,  Cassio- 
peia. Andromeda,  Pegasus,  Perseus,  Orion,  Sirius,  Gemini  (Castor  and  Pol- 
lux), Taurus,  Capella,  Vega,  and  the  Milky  Way. 

To  fixd  the  staks  ix  the  sky  :  With  a  compass  find  north.  Facing 
the  north,  the  Xorth  Star  or  Pole  Star  will  be  found  at  a  point  almost  one 
half  of  the  distance  from  the  horizon  to  the  point  directly  overhead 
(zenith). 

The  Xorth  or  Pole  Star  will  always  be  found  in  that  part  of  the  sky 
directly  opposite  to  the  place  where  the  sun  is  at  noon. 

Xear  the  Pole  Star  is  the  Dipper.  The  Dipper  is  composed  of  seven  stars. 
The  two  stars  farthest  from  the  handle  are  called  the  pointers,  because  a  line 
drawn  through  them  and  continued  across  the  sky  (about  five  times  the  dis- 
tance between  them)  will  reach  the  Xorth  Star. 

The  Dipper  is  a  part  of  a  larger  group  of  stars  called  Ursa  Major  (the  Great 
Bear). 

The  Pole  Star  is  the  tail  star  in  another  group  called  Ursa  Minor  (the 
Little  Bear). 

If  a  line  be  drawn  from  the  middle  star  in  the  Dipper  through  the  Xorth 
Star  and  continued  the  same  distance  on  the  other  side  of  the  Xorth  Star,  it 
will   reach  the   group    called  Cassiopeia.     This   group   is  somewhat  in  the 

#  #  # 
form  of    VV 

If  this  line  be  extended  still  farther,  it  will  reach  a  row  of  three  stars  form- 
ing a  group  called  Andromeda. 


OUTLINES    IX    NATUBB    STUD*.  ]11 

The  end  star  of  this  group  is  the  corner  star  in  a  group  of  four  Btarg  form- 
ing a  square.     This  latter  group  is  called  Pegasus. 

If  this  line  be  crossed  bv  another  at  right  angles  to  the  first  at  the  N'ortb 
Star,  it  will  join  two  star  groups,  Lyra  and  Auriga.     The  main  star  of  I 
called  Vega,  and  the  main  star  of  Auriga  is  called  Capella.     h\  many  grou   I 
Dniy  the  main  stars  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye. 

Stars  can  be  located  with  the  aid  of  the  charts  on  the  following  pa| 
x^lace  the  chart  in  a  horizontal  position  overhead,  with  the  directions  toward 
the  proper  points  of  the  compass. 


]12  OUTLINES  IN   NATURE  STUDY. 


STARS  ON  OCTOBER   15  AT  NINE  O'CLOCK. 

These  stars  will  be  seen  in  the  same  places  on  November  15  at  seven 
o'clock,  and  on  September  15  at  eleven  o'clock. 

The  group  railed  Cassiopeia  is  nearly  overhead,  slightly  to  the  northeast. 

The  groups  of  Andromeda  and  Pegasus  are  southeast  of  Cassiopeia. 

(  ygnus  (the  Swan)  is  a  group  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  This  group  is  also 
nearly  overhead,  slightly  toward  the  west. 

If  a  line  be  drawn  from  Cygnus  through  Cassiopeia,  it  will  reach  another 
group  called  Perseus,  which  is  northeast  of  Cassiopeia. 

Vega  and  Capella  can  also  be  found  according  to  directions  given  above. 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY. 


113 


N. 


H 


Dipper. 

Capella. 

•        * 

• 

• 

*            *        *        * 
Pole  Star. 

• 
• 

• 

• 

• 

Cassiopeia. 

•    *    • 

• 

* 

• 

•    Vega. 

"*    Perseus. 

Andromeda. 

• 

• 
Pegasus. 

• 

• 

• 
• 

• 

• 
*                    • 

Cygnus. 

• 

-■ 


STARS  ON  OCTOBER  15  AT  NINE  O'CLOCK. 


114  OUTLINES  IN    NATUEE  STUDY. 


STARS  ON  FEBRUARY   15  AT  SEVEN  O'CLOCK. 

These  stars  will  be  in  the  same  positions  at  nine  o'clock  on  January  15  and 
at  eleven  o'clock  on  December  15. 

Find  the  Pole  Star  and  Dipper.  Opposite  the  Dipper  will  be  found,  in 
the  western  part  of  the  sky,  Cassiopeia,  Andromeda,  and  Pegasus.  They  are 
in  the  same  positions  with  regard  to  each  other,  but  we  see  them  in  another 
part  of  the  sky. 

South  of  Perseus  (which  is  nearly  overhead)  will  be  seen  a  cluster  of  tiny 
stars.     This  is  called  the  Pleiades. 

In  the  southeast  is  a  group  called  Orion.  The  principal  stars  of  this  group 
form  the  corners  of  an  oblong.  Within  this  oblong  is  an  oblique  line  of 
stars. 

In  a  line  halfway  between  Orion  and  the  Pole  Star  can  be  seen  a  brilliant 
star  in  a  group  called  Auriga,  The  star  is  called  Capella.  This  group  is  east 
of  Perseus. 

Starting  with  Capella  and  journeying  round  Orion  in  a  curved  line  toward 
the  east  and  then  toward  the  south  we  will  reach  successively  the  following 
stars.  Northeast  of  Orion  are  two  stars  called  Gemini  ( meaning  the  Twins). 
These  are  named  respectively  Castor  and  Pollux.  Continuing  the  line  to  the 
southeast,  we  come  to  a  bright  star  in  a  group  called  Canis  Minor  (meaning 
the  Little  Dog).  Procyon,  which  is  the  principal  star  of  this  group,  is  the 
only  one  that  can  be  seen  easily  with  the  naked  eye. 

Continued  toward  the  south,  the  line  will  reach  the  brightest  star  in  the 
sky.  Sirius,  sometimes  called  the  Dog  Star,  is  the  principal  star  in  a  group 
called  Canis  Major  (meaning  the  Great  Dog).  This  is  the  only  star  of  the 
group  that  can  be  readily  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  Dog  days  are  so  called  be- 
cause at  this  time  Sirius  rises  with  the  sun. 

Between  Orion  and  the  Pleiades  is  a  bright  star  called  Aldebaran.  It  is 
the  principal  star  in  a  group  called  Taurus  (the  Bull). 


OUTLINES   IX    NATUBE    STUDY. 


115 


N, 


• 

Dipper.        . 

• 

Pejrasus. 

•        • 

•           * 

*       • 

Pole  Star. 

* 

Cassiopeia. 

* 

*         • 

• 

* 

Andromeda. 

*       • 

• 

• 

Cape] 

la. 

• 

* 
Gemini,    ■¥• 

• 

• 

• 

if    Perseus. 

* 

• 

• 

Procyon. 

*        *     * 

** 
*    • 

• 

*    *    Pleiades. 

• 

• 
• 

Taurus. 

• 
• 
• 

Sirius.    *           •           •    Orion. 

s. 


STARS  ON  FEBRUARY  15  AT  SEVEN  O'CLOCK. 


116  OUTLINES   IX    NATURE    STUDY. 


STARS  ON  APRIL  15  AT  EIGHT  O'CLOCK, 

These  will  be  in  the  same  place  on  March  15  at  ten  o'clock  and  on  May  15 
at  six  o'clock. 

With  the  Pole  Star  and  Dipper  located,  Capella  can  be  found  west  of  the 

Dipper. 

I  Overhead,  slightly  toward  the  south,  will  be  a  group  of  six  stars  called  Leo 
(the  Lion).  This  group  has  the  shape  of  a  sickle,  with  the  handle  pointing 
south. 

If  the  curved  handle  of  the  Dipper  be  continued  toward  the  southeast,  it 
will  reach  a  bright,  slightly  reddish  star  called  Arcturus. 


OUTLINES   IN    NATURE    STUDY. 


117 


N. 


Cassiopeia. 
• 


North  Star.    * 


•        *        •  * 


•        • 


Dipper. 


• 
Capella. 


Arcturu8. 


Gemini. 


•      • 

*  • 

• 

• 
Leo. 


S. 


STARS  ON  APRIL  15  AT  EIGHT  O'CLOCK. 


118  OUTLINES   IN    NATUBE   STUDK. 


STARS  ON  JULY  15  AT  NINE  O'CLOCK. 

These  will  be  in  the  same  positions  on  June  15  at  eleven  o'clock  and  on 
August  15  at  seven  o'clock. 

Find  the  stars  already  pointed  out.  The  Dipper  will  be  west  of  the  Pole 
Star.  Yega  will  be  southeast  of  the  Pole  Star.  Arcturus  will  lie  nearly 
overhead,  slightly  toward  the  west. 

Between  Yega  and  Arcturus  is  a  small  cluster  of  stars  called  the  Northern 
Crown. 

Southwest  of  Arcturus  is  another  group  called  Virgo.  The  chief  star  of 
this  group  is  called  Spica.     It  shines  with  a  brilliant  white  light. 

The  Milky  Way  crosses  that  part  of  the  sky  in  which  are  found  Cygnus, 
Cassiopeia,  Perseus,  Gemini,  Orion,  Canis  Major  and  Canis  Minor.  It  passes 
between  Orion  and  Gemini  and  between  Sirius  and  Procyon. 


OUTLINES   IS    NATUEE    STUDY. 


K. 


Cassiopeia. 
• 


North  Star. 
• 


H 


Cygnus. 
• 


Dipper. 


• 

• 


• 
Vega. 


• 

*    •    • 

Northern  Crown. 


Arcturu*. 


Bplca* 


s. 


STARS  ON  JULY  15  AT  NINE  O'CLOCK. 


120  OUTLINES    IN    NATUBB    STUDY. 


THE  AIR. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Where  is  the  air?  What  kind  of  air  do  we  inhale?  What 
kind  of  air  do  we  exhale  ?  What  kind  of  air  do  plants  breathe 
in  ?     Of  what  is  the  air  made  ? 

How  does  water  get  into  the  air  ?  What  becomes  of  the  water 
that  enters  the  air  ? 

Why  does  water  left  in  a  cnp  dry  up  ? 

What  causes  a  pond  or  pool  to  dry  up  ? 

What  becomes  of  steam  from  the  boiling  kettle  ?  from 
enemies  or  factories  ? 

If  an  ink-well  is  left  uncovered  what  is  the  effect  on  the  ink  ? 
Why  ? 

Fill  a  tumbler  or  cup  with  ice  water  in  a  warm  room.  What 
happens  to  the  outside  of  the  tumbler  or  cup?  Where  did  the 
moisture  come  from  ? 

Why  does  moisture  collect  on  the  window  panes  when  we  are 
cooking  ? 

Why  does  it  not  collect  on  the  stove  ? 

When  does  the  air  lose  its  moisture  ? 

What  is  the  rainbow?  When  does  it  appear  in  the  east? 
When  do  we  see  it  in  the  west  ? 

Where  does  the  air  obtain  its  heat  ? 

Where  does  the  surface  of  the  earth  obtain  its  heat  ? 

Place  some  lumps  of  coal  or  pebbles  in  water.  What  happens  ? 
Is  the  water  or  the  mineral  heavier  ?     How  do  you  know  ? 


OUTLINES    IN    NATUBB    STUDY,  121 

Place   some   shavings   in  water.     What  happens?     Which   is 

heavier  ?     Why  ? 

Which  is  warmer,  air  near  the  ceiling  or  air  near  the  floor? 

Which  is  heavier,  hot  air  or  cold  air?     How  do  you  know  . 

Which  is  heavier,  air  or  water  ? 

Why  does  an  empty  bottle  float  in  water?     Is  it  really  empty? 

Why  do  soap  bubbles  rise?     Why  do  sparks  fly  upward  ? 

What  causes  a  draught  when  we  leave  a  door  or  window  open  '.' 

What  causes  the  wind  to  blow  ? 

Of  what  use  is  the  wind  to  plants  ? 

Of  what  use  is  wind  to  us  ? 

Is  there  any  fog:  on  a  windy  day  ?     Whv  ? 

Place  a  lighted  candle  near  the  ceiling  in  an  open  doorway 
between  two  rooms  of  different  temperature.     Then  place  it  near 
the  floor.     What  is  the  direction  of   the  flame    in  each    ca& 
What  does  this  prove  ? 

On  which  part  of  the  earth  is  the  air  always  rising  ? 

How  are  bicycle  tires  and  footballs  kept  in  shape  .' 

If  the  air  is  removed  from  the  inside  of  any  of  these  articles 
what  happens  ?     Why  ? 

Suck  the  air  from  a  hollow  key  and  place  it  quickly  against 
the  tongue  or  lip.     What  is  the  result '.'     Win  . 

Fill  a  smooth-ecl^ed  tumbler  with  water  and  cover  it  closelv 
with  a  sheet  of  paper.  Invert  the  tumbler,  keeping  the  pn j »»  r 
pressed  closely  to  the  glass.  Why  does  the  water  remain  in  tie- 
tumbler  ? 

What  would  happen  if  the  air  were  removed  from  inside  oi  a 
drum  ? 

Lift  a  brick  by  means  of  a  piece  of  soaked  leather  attached  to 
a  string.     Why  is  it  possible  to  do  this  V 


122  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

"What  causes  the  cork  to  fly  from  a  pop-gun  ? 

What  causes  the  water  to  enter  a  squirter  ? 

When  a  person  is  drinking  lemonade  through  a  straw  or  tube 
of  any  kind,  what  causes  the  lemonade  to  rise  in  the  tube  ?  "When 
does  it  begin  to  rise  ? 

Place  a  bucket  of  water  on  the  table.  Insert  in  it  both  ends 
of  a  rubber  hose  (three  or  four  feet  in  length).  Fill  the  hose 
with  water  and  then  turn  one  end  quickly  into  another  bucket 
on  the  floor.     What  happens?     What  is  the  cause  of  this9 

If  only  one  end  of  the  tube  be  placed  in  the  water,  why  does  not 
the  water  run  out  ? 

A  siphon  generally  has  the  shape  of  a  goose-neck,  —  a  curved 
tube  with  the  ends  unequal  in  length.  Place  the  shorter  end  in 
some  water,  exhaust  the  air  from  the  tube  by  means  of  suction. 
Remove  the  lips  from  the  tube  as  soon  as  the  air  is  exhausted. 
What  is  the  result  ?     What  causes  it  ? 

What  is  a  vacuum  ? 

Use  a  glass  tube  that  is  curved  or  U-shajDed.  Partly  fill  it  with 
water  and  closely  cover  one  end.  Tilt  the  tube  so  that  the  water 
will  flow  into  one  arm  of  the  tube  toward  the  closed  end.  Then 
hold  the  tube  so  that  the  two  ends  are  again  upright.  What 
happens  to  the  water  ?     Why  ? 


Summary. 

The  air  is  all  around  us.  It  is  composed  of  several  gases.  It  also  contains 
some  moisture.     The  principal  gases  in  the  ah*  are  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 

The  sun  heats  the  surface  of  the  earth.  From  the  earth's  surface  the  air 
receives  its  heat.     Hot  ah*  is  lighter  than  cold  ah.     For  this  reason  the  cold 


OUTLINES   IN   NATTJBE   STUDY  123 

air  is  always  pushing  the  warmer  air  up  and  taking  its  place.     The  warm  air 

floats  on  the  cooler  air  in  the  same  way  thai  chips  float  in  water. 

The  rising  of  the  warm  air  and  the  flowing  in  of  the  cold  air  causes  wind 
Wind  is  air  in  motion. 

The  sun  causes  the  water  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  evaporsl  This 
vapor  enters  the  air. 

Wind  carries  moisture  to  places  that  need  water,  in  the  form  of  rain,  snow, 
etc.  It  also  carries  to  plants  and  animals  the  kind  of  air  which  they  need.  I" 
carries  the  pollen  of  flowers  to  other  flowers  that  need  it.  It  is  also  of  use  in 
scattering  seeds  of  plants  and  carrying  odors  of  various  kin«ls. 

The  ah*  receives  its  moisture  from  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  streams,  la] 
ponds,  etc.     It  also  obtains  moisture  from  the  leaves  of  planls  and  tin'  lu •     - 
of  animals.     This  moisture  becomes  visible  in  the  form  of  clouds  and  fogs. 

The  ah*  loses  its  moisture  in  the  form  of  rain,  hail,  snow,  dew,  and  frost 

Were  it  not  for  the  moisture  in  the  air  we  would  have  no  twilight  "W  hen 
the  sun  is  below  the  horizon  (either  just  before  sunrise  or  after  sunset)  it 
shines  on  the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  and  this  light  is  reflected  to  the  earth 
If  there  were  no  atmosphere  the  change  from  daylight  to  darkness  would  l>u 

sudden. 

Air  has  pressure,  or  weight.     The  pressure  of  the  air  serves  to  raise  water 

in  pumps,  siphons,  fountains,  etc. 

If  all  of  the  air  is  removed  from  a  siphon  the  water  rises  in  it.  Thisish 
the  ah*  is  pressing  on  the  water  that  is  around  the  tube  while  QO  air  p 
on  the  water  within  it.     The  water  enters  the  empty  tube  and  flows  out  at  the 

other  end. 

As  long  as  there  is  ah*  in  the  tube,  the  pressure  is  the  same  all  over  the 
surface  of  the  water.  As  soon  as  the  air  is  removed  from  the  tube  the  water 
rises  at  the  part  on  which  there  is  no  pressure. 


124  OUTLINES   IN   NATURE   STUDY. 


SOUND. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

If  a  bell  is  rung  what  happens  to  its  surface? 

What  happens  to  a  tuning  fork  when  it  is  sounded? 

What  is  meant  by  vibration  ?  In  what  way  do  vibrations  reach 
us? 

Make  a  string  telephone  in  the  following  manner:  Remove 
the  bottoms  from  two  cylindrical  tin  boxes.  Cover  one  end  of 
each  with  a  piece  of  moist  paper.  When  the  paper  is  per- 
fectly dry,  connect  the  boxes  by  passing  a  string  through  the 
center  of  each  and  knotting  it  on  the  inside.  The  string  may  be 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  length.  When  the  boxes  are  held  so 
that  the  string  is  perfectly  straight,  a  whisper  in  one  box  can  be 
heard  in  the  other  held  close  to  the  ear.  What  carries  the 
sound  ? 

If  the  end  of  a  log  is  scratched  with  a  pin,  the  sound  can  be 
heard  distinctly  at  the  other  end.     What  carries  the  sound  ? 

What  causes  anaeolian  harp  to  produce  sounds?  What  causes 
the  sound  in  any  stringed  instrument  ?  What  connection  is  there 
between  the  length  of  the  string  and  the  pitch  of  the  sound  ? 

Winch  vibrates  more  rapidly,  a  long  or  a  short  string  ? 

A  whisper  in  one  end  of  a  rubber  hose  can  be  heard  at  the 
other  end.  Why?  Of  what  use  are  speaking  tubes?  How  do 
they  carry  sound  ? 

What  causes  the  noise  of  a  tin  horn  ?  What  is  the  effect  of 
covering  one  or  more  of  the  holes  in  a  toy  whistle  or  a  flute? 


OUTLINES   IX    NATUBB    STUDY.  125 

What  connection  is  there  between  the  Length  of  the  column  of 

air  and  the  pitch  of  the  sound  ? 

When  a  book  falls  to  the  floor  what  causes  the  sound  ? 
When  a  cannon  is  fired  what  causes  the  sound? 
What  makes  the  noise  when  the  pencil  scratches  the  slate? 
How  is  the  human  voice  produced  ? 

Summary. 

When  a  soimdin 2;  bod v  vibrates,  these  vibrations  cause  tin*  air  around  I  1 
vibrate  also.     The  vibrations  of  the  air  are  carried   to  the  drum  of  th< 
The  more  rapidly  a  sounding  body  vibrates,  the  higher  will  be  the  pitch     f 
the  sound. 

The  lowest  sound  that  we  can  hear  is  caused  by  thirty-two  vibrations  u     1 

*  « 

second.     The  highest  sound  that  we  can  hear  is  caused  by  sei  enty-six  thousand 
vibrations  per  second. 

When  the  vibrations  are  regular,  the  sound  will  be  pleasant  or  musi 
When  the  vibrations  are  irregular  the  sound  will  be  a  noise. 

The  more  air  that  is  displaced  with  each  vibration,  the  louder   or    m 
forcible  will  be  the  sound. 


WATER 

Conversational  Lesson. 

What  is  the  difference  between  river  water  and  ocean  water! 

Where  does  the  ocean  get  a  new  supply  of  water? 

Where  does  the  ocean  get  its  salt? 

Of  what  uses  are  the    minerals   in   ocean    water    to    marine 

animals  ? 

What  animals  live  in  salt  water? 


126  OUTLINES  IN  NATURE   STUDY. 

What  animals  live  in  fresh  water  ? 

Examine  some  water  under  a  magnifying  glass.  What  does  it 
contain  ?     What  name  is  given  to  these  tiny  creatures  ? 

Does  fresh  water  ever  have  any  particular  flavor?  What 
causes  it  ? 

In  what  direction  does  water  always  flow? 

Why  do  some  streams  flow  more  rapidly  than  others? 

Are  streams  found  in  level  countries  ? 

Of  what  use  is  water  to  plants  ? 

Is  high  land  or  low  land  more  fertile  ?     Why  ? 

How  are  rivers  supplied  with  water  ? 

What  is  the  source  of  supply  of  underground  springs  and 
streams  ? 

Where  does  rain  come  from  ? 

How  does  moisture  get  into  the  air  ? 

Hold  a  wet  handkerchief  in  front  of  the  fire  or  where  the 
wind  blows  on  it.  What  happens?  What  causes  wet  clothing 
to  dry? 

If  water  is  exposed  in  a  saucer  what  happens?  What  be- 
comes of  the  water  ? 

Why  do  ponds  dry  up  ? 

What  becomes  of  escaping  steam  from  an  engine  or  boiling 
kettle  ? 

What  is  vapor  ?     What  is  evaporation  ? 

Why  does  there  appear  to  be  a  vacant  space  between  the 
escaping  steam  and  the  spout  of  a  tea  kettle  in  which  water  is 
boiling  ? 

How  are  clouds  formed  ? 

On  a  cool  day  stand  under  steam  that  is  escaping  from  an  en- 
gine.    What  happens  ?     What  causes  this  to  happen  ? 


OUTLINES   IN    JSATOBB    STUDY.  127 

When  do  clouds  empty  themselves? 

When  water  is  boiling  in  a  room  why  does  moisture  colled   on 
the  window  panes  ?     Why  does  it  not  collect  on  the  outer  sun. 
of  the  window  ? 

If  a  pitcher  of  ice  water  is  carried  into  a   warm   room,  wli.it 
happens  to  the  outside  of  the  pitcher?     Where  does  the  moist 
come  from?     Why  does  it  form  on  the  pitcher? 

What  causes  dew  to  form  ? 

What  always  causes  air  to  lose  its  moisture? 

Why  does  frost  sometimes  form  on  the  window  pane '.' 

What  effect  on  the  temperature  of  the  air  has  the  moisture 
which  it  contains  ? 

Is  it  warmer  or  cooler  after  a  rainstorm  ?     Whv? 

Weigh  an  empty  tin  cup.  Fill  it  with  water  and  weigh  it 
again.     What  does  this  prove  ? 

Which  is  heavier,  a  cup  that  is  full  of  water  or  one  that  is  full 
to  the  brim  with  ice?  Of  what  advantage  is  it  that  ice  is 
lighter  than  water  ? 

Place  each  of  the  following  substances  in  water  for  the  purp 
of  finding  out  which  are  heavier  and  which  are  lighter  than  water : 
wood,  stone,  mercury,  cork,  oil,  ice,  glass. 

What  happens  to  a  bottle  that  is  full  of  water  or  other  liquid 
when  the  liquid  which  it  contains  becomes  frozen  ?  AVh\  .  Why 
do  water  pipes  burst  when  the  water  in  them  freezes  . 

Why  does  the  lid  of  the  tea  kettle  rise  when  the  water  is 
boiling  ? 

What  causes  the  bursting  of  the  boiler  connected  with  an 
engine  ? 

Of  what  uses  are  rivers  and  oceans  to  man  ? 

Of  what  use  to  us  is  water  in  the  atmosphere? 


128  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE  STUDY. 

What  other  uses  has  water  for  us  ?  Of  what  use  is  water  to 
beasts?  birds?  reptiles?  fish?  shellfish?  insects? 

Of  what  use  to  plants  is  water  in  its  different  forms,  —  rain, 
snow,  clew,  and  frost  ? 

Summary. 

Water  is  a  transparent  liquid,  without  odor,  flavor,  or  color.  It  is  necessary 
to  the  life  of  plants  and  animals. 

On  the  earth,  water  forms  springs,  streams,  and  oceans. 

Streams  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  kept  supplied  by  means  of  under- 
ground 8] trings  and  also  by  means  of  moisture  from  the  atmosphere. 

Springs  and  streams  carry  various  materials,  such  as  salt,  lime,  iron,  sand, 
and  other  substances,  which  they  obtain  from  the  soil  through  which  they 
flow.  It  is  by  this  means  that  the  ocean  is  furnished  with  mineral  substances 
for  the  use  of  marine  animals. 

Vapor  is  constantly  passing  into  the  ah-  from  the  breath  of  animals,  the 
leaves  of  plants,  and  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  streams. 

When  the  air  is  full  of  moisture,  this  becomes  visible  in  the  form  of  clouds, 
fogs,  steam,  etc. 

When  this  moisture  comes  in  contact  with  a  cold  current  of  air,  it  condenses 
and  returns  to  the  earth  in  the  form  of  rain,  snow,  or  hail.  When  the  surface 
of  the  earth  is  colder  than  the  ah-  above  it,  the  moisture  of  the  ah-  be- 
comes visible  in  the  form  of  dew. 

Water  when  heated  beyond  boiling  point  becomes  invisible  and  passes  into 
the  air  in  the  form  of  vapor.  When  this  vapor  comes  in  contact  with  cooler 
air  it  condenses  and  becomes  visible  in  the  form  of  steam  clouds. 

Heated  water  expands,  that  is,  it  takes  up  more  room.  Steam  is  used  to  move 
machinery  and  engines. 

Water  that  is  frozen  occupies  more  space  than  when  it  is  in  the  form  of 
a  liquid. 

Water  is  of  use  to  plants  and  animals  in  various  ways. 

Plants  absorb  their  food  from  the  ground  through  the  roots  by  means  of 
water  in  the  soil 


OUTLINES    IN    NATURE    STUDY,  129 

Rain  moistens  the  ground.     Snow  keeps  the  ground  warm  during  th^  arinl 
and  when  it  melts  it  moistens  the  ground.     Frosl   in  the  ground   breaks  up 
the  soil  and  makes  it  softer. 

Some  animals  have  their  hoi i Lea  in  the  water.     Many  of  these  animals  :ire 
used  for  food  by  man  and  by  other  animals. 

Moisture  in  the  air  modifies  the  temperature.     Rain  and  bimxw  purify  the 
air  by  carrying  the  impurities  hack  to  the  earth. 

Water  is  also  useful  to  animals  for  drinking  and  bathing  purpofi 


MAGNETIC  ATTRACTION. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Procure  a  magnet.     Place  some  needles  near  it.     Whal   is  the 
result?     What  is  this  power  of  attraction  called  V 

Mix  some  sand,  sawdust,  steel   filings,  and  chalk.      P 
two  ends  of  the  magnet  over  the  mixture.     What   is  the   result? 

What  does  this  prove  ? 

Pass  the  blade  of  a  knife  through  sonic  steel   filings.      Bafl  it 
any  power  to  attract  them?     Rub  the  point  of  the  knife-blade 
on  the  ends  of  the  magnet.      Pass  it  again   through    the    liliu 
What  happens?     What  does  this  prove  V 

Pass  the  middle  of  the  magnet  through  the  steel  filings.      I)' 
the  end  or  the  middle  have  the  more  attraction  for  the  steel  I 

Why  is  a  magnet  generally  made  in  the  shape  of  ;i  horseshoe  ? 

Place  a  magnet  on  the  table  and  lay  a    pane  of  glass  on  it. 
Sprinkle  some'iron  or  steel  filings  on   the  glass.     Tap  the  ed 
of  the  glass  lightly.     What  happens  to  the  filings  V 

Place  a  needle  on  one  surface  of  a  pane  of  glass  or  a  sheet  of 


130  OUTLINES    IX    NATURE    STUDY. 

cardboard  and  a  magnet  on  the  other.  What  is  the  result? 
What  does  this  prove  ? 

Magnetize  a  long  knitting  needle.  Float  a  piece  of  cork  in 
water.  Lay  the  magnetized  needle  on  it.  In  winch  general 
direction  will  it  point  ? 

On  a  cloudy  day  or  night,  how  can  a  sailor  discover  the  direc- 
tion in  which  he  is  traveling? 

Why  is  the  needle  of  the  compass  so  carefully  covered  ? 

Why  is  no  iron  or  steel  permitted  near  it  ? 


Summary. 

A  certain  kind  of  iron  ore  was  discovered  in  ancient  times  by  the  people 
living  near  a  town  called  Magnesia.  This  material,  called  loadstone,  was 
found  to  possess  the  power  of  attracting  iron.  On  account  of  the  place  of  its 
discovery,  the  name  magnet  was  applied  to  it. 

A  magnet  may  have  any  shape,  but  it  is  usually  made  somewhat  in  the  shape 
of  a  horseshoe.  It  is  made  in  this  shape  because  the  greatest  power  of  attrac- 
tion is  found  in  the  ends,  or  poles,  of  a  magnetic  bar,  and  this  shape  per- 
mits the  two  poles  to  act  together.  If  a  magnetic  bar  be  broken,  the  broken 
ends  will  be  found  to  have  the  same  power  of  attraction.  A  magnet  can  hold 
about  twentv-five  times  its  own  weight  of  iron. 

If  we  magnetize  a  slender  steel  bar  or  needle  and  then  suspend  it  so  that 
it  can  move  freely  in  all  directions,  it  will  take  the  direction  of  north  and 
south.      This  fact  was  made  use  of  for  the  benefit  of  sailors. 

The  mariner's  compass  is  an  instrument  containing  a  magnetized  needle. 
This  needle  is  carefully  protected  so  that  wind  cannot  affect  it.  The  presence 
of  iron  or  steel,  even  at  a  distance,  will  attract  the  needle.  Any  of  these 
things  would  influence  the  needle  and  cause  it  to  point  in  some  other  direction 
than  the  exact  north. 


OUTLINES  IN  HISTORY. 


STORY  OF  COLUMBUS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Where  was    Columbus   born?     Find    Italy  on  a  map.     Find 
Genoa  on  a  map.     In  what  direction  from   the   schoolhous<     is 
Italy?     What  is  the  appearance  of  an  Italian?      What    led   ( 
lumbus  to  wish  to  be  a  sailor?     Consider  the  following  points:  — 

Belief  of  the  people  as  to  the  shape  of  the  earth.  —  Trade  with 
India  and  desire  for  a  more  direct  route.  —  Opinion  of  Columbus 
as  to  the  shape  of  the  earth.  —  His  poverty  and  difficulties  in  obtain- 
ing; assistance.  —  His  wanderings  through  different  countries. — 
His  appeals  to  different  governments  for  aid.  —  Queen  Isabella's 
offers  of  assistance. — Pinta,  Nina,  and  Santa  Maria. — The  Length 
of  the  voyage.  —  Terror  and  mutiny  of  the  sailors.  —  Signs  oi  ap- 
proaching land. —  Discovery  of  San  Salvador.  —  Reason  for  being 
so  named.  —  Reason  for  name  "West  Indies.**  —  Strange  Inhabi- 
tants.—  Reason  for  name  "Indians." — Visits  to  other  islands. — 
His  return  to  Spain.  —  His  reception.  —  Columbus  and  the 
—  Another  voyage.  —  Treachery  of  his  companions.  —  Columbus 
in  chains.  —  His  poverty  and  death.  —  His  ignorance  of  the 
greatness  of  his  discovery.  —  His  present   burial-place.  —  Reason 

for  names  "Columbia,"  "America." 

131 


132  OUTLINES   IX    HISTORY. 


Summary. 

Christopher  Columbus  was  born  in  Genoa,  a  seaport  town  in  Italy.  When 
he  grew  up  he  became  a  sailor.  At  this  time  people  thought  that  the  earth 
was  fiat,  but  Columbus  believed  it  to  be  round.  lie  wanted  to  prove  this  by 
sailing  around  the  earth,  but  he  had  no  vessels.  He  visited  kings  and  queens 
of  different  countries,  asking  them  to  supply  him  with  vessels,  but  they  all 
refused. 

At  last  the  queen  of  Spain  fitted  out  a  fleet  of  three  vessels  for  him.  The 
one  in  which  Columbus  sailed  was  called  the  /Stntta  Maria. 

For  many  weeks  these  vessels  sailed  without  seeing  land.  The  sailors  be- 
came frightened  and  wanted  Columbus  to  return  home,  but  Columbus  refused. 
Then  the  sailors  were  going  to  put  him  in  chains  and  return  home,  but  one 
evening  thev  saw  lights  ahead  and  knew  that  land  must  be  near. 

The  next  morning,  October  12,  1492,  thev  saw  a  beautiful  island  before 
them  with  strange-looking  people  on  it.  These  people  were  Indians,  and  the 
island  was  one  of  the  West  Indies. 

Columbus  had  discovered  a  new  land,  which  was  afterward  called  America*. 


THE  INDIANS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Appearance  of  the  Indians,  —  hair,  complexion,  painting  the 
face.  I  Hothing,  —  skins  of  animals,  blankets,  moccasins,  leggings, 
head  dross  of  feathers,  articles  of  decoration,  such  as  beads,  teeth 
and  claws  of  animals,  scalps  of  victims. 

Houses  or  wigwams,  —  variation  in  size  and  structure. — 
Mud  huts,  hide  tents,  lack  of  windows  and  furniture.  —  Blankets 
or  skins  of  animals  for  beds.  —  Indian  cradle.  —  Food,  —  how  ob- 


OUTLINES    IN    BISTORY.  1... 

tained  and  cooked.  —  Cooking    utensils.  —  Open   fire.  —  Cancx 

—  materials   and   manner  of   making  various  kinds. — Warfare, 

—  implements   and  methods  of   warfare.  —  Cruelty  and   treach- 
ery.—  Form  of  government, — Wandering  life. — Work  of  bra^ 

work  of  squaws.  —  Religious  belief.  —  Mode  of  curing  the  sick. 

—  Indian  dances. 

Why  did  Columbus  call  them  "Indians"?  I  low  did  they 
greet  Columbus  ? 

Origin  of  the  use  of  tobacco  among  white  people.  —  The  story 
of  Hiawatha  in  Longfellow's  poem  tells  us  much  about  the  life  of 
Indians. 

Summary. 

When  the  white  men  first  came  to  America  they  found  the  Indians  li- 
The  Indians  have  a  copper-colored  skin,  with  high  cluck  bones  and  straight 
black  hah-.     They  are  divided  into  tribes,  and  each  tribe  has  a  chief.     They 
live  in  wigwams  made  of  skins  of  animals  and  boughs  of  fcri  They  wander 

from  place  to  place,  carrying  these  wigwams  with  them. 

They  spend  their  time  in  hunting,  fishing,  and  warfare.     The  ><|ua\\ 
obliged  to  do  all  the  work,  —  till  the  ground,  plant   the  crops,  and  gather 
the  harvest.     When  they  move,  the  squaws  look  after  the  wigwams  and  all 
of  the  household  goods,  as  well  as  the  papooses.     The  men  carry  only  their 
hunting  knives,  tomahawks,  bows  and  arrows. 

Indians  are  treacherous  and  cruel.  They  think  thai  the  bravest  man  La  the 
one  who  kills  the  greatest  number  of  people  and  takes  their  scalps.  In  war 
they  never  fight  openly,  but  shoot  their  arrows  from  a  hiding  phu 

The  braves  are  fond  of  gay  colors  and  like  to  dress  themselves  in  bright 
blankets,  feathers  and  beads,  and  decorate  their  Eaces  with  colored  pain: 

They  worship  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  thunder  and  lightning,  rain  and  wind 
They  believe  that  the  Great  Spirit  always  watches  over  them,  and  thai  when 
they  die  they  will  go  to  a  place  called  the  -happy  hunting-grounds,"  where 
they  will  hunt  and  fish  forever. 


134  OUTLINES    IX    1IISTOHY. 


STORY  OF  POCAHONTAS. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Settlement  of  Virginia.  —  Captain  John  Smith.  —  Starvation 
of  colony. — John  Smith  captured  by  Indians.  —  Showed  them 
compass,  letter  writing.  —  Became  friend  of  Pocahontas,  daugh- 
ter of  Powhatan.  —  Pocahontas  saved  Smith's  life.  —  Smith  set 
free.  —  Trouble  between  Indians  and  colonists.  —  Indians  plan 
to  kill  the  white  people.  —  Pocahontas  warns  the  English  and 
saves  the  colony. — Pocahontas  captured  by  the  English.  —  She 
became  a  Christian. — Was  baptized  and  changed  her  name  to 
Rebecca.  —  Married  John  Rolfe. — Received  at  the  Court  of 
England  as  Lady  Rebecca. 


Summary. 

Captain  John  Smith  was  living  with  white  people  in  Virginia  who  were 
very  poor.  While  hunting  food  for  them  he  was  captured  by  the  Indians, 
who  would  have  put  him  to  death,  but  his  life  was  saved  by  Pocahontas,  to 
whom  Smith  had  been  very  kind.  Pocahontas  often  visited  the  white  people 
after  Smith  returned  to  the  colony.  She  taught  them  the  language  of  the 
Indians  and  told  them  much  about  the  different  tribes  and  the  surrounding 
country.  During  the  hard  times  she  often  supplied  them  with  food.  After- 
wards the  Indians  planned  to  kill  the  white  people,  but  Pocahontas  went 
through  the  woods  at  night  and  warned  them  of  their  danger.  She  after- 
ward  lived  among  the  white  people,  became  a  Christian,  and  took  the  name 
of  Rebecca. 


OUTLINES   LS'    HISTORY.  1 


THE  PILGRIMS. 

Conversational   Lesson. 

Religious  intolerance  in  England.  —  Puritans  goto  Bolland  — 

Reason  for  name  Puritan. —  Dislike  of  Holland.  —  Poverty  of  I'd- 

* 

grirns. —  Reason  for  name  "Pilgrims."  —  Number  of  Pilgrims. — ■ 
Reason  for  their  wanderings.  —  Spi  <  dwi  II  and  Mayflowi  r.  — 
Size  of  the  vessels. — Length  of  voyage.  —  Where  they  landed. — 
Reason  for  names  New  England,  Plymouth,  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
Plymouth  Rock.  —  Sufferings  during  winter. 

The  story  of  Captain  Miles  Standish  in  Longfellow's  poem  tells 
us  a  good  deal  about  the  Pilgrims  in  America. 

Consider  their  manner  of  living  in  their  new  home. — How 
they  were  clad.  —  Their  relations  with  the  Indians.  —  Their  me<  - 
ing  houses.  —  Their  amusements,  etc. 


Summary. 

Many  years  ago  people  were  expected  to  accept  the  religion  of  the  country 
in  which  they  lived.  In  England  there  were  people  called  Puritans  who 
did  not  like  the  Church  of  England.  So  they  left  England  and  wenl  to  l!«'l- 
land;  but  they  were  not  happy  there,  and  they  decided  to  come  to  Ameri  . 
where  they  could  worship  God  as  they  pleased.  On  account  of  their  wan- 
derings they  were  called  Pilgrims. 

They  started  for  America  in  the  Mayflower,  and  after  sailing  for  two 
months  they  landed  in  December,  It i '1 0,  on  the  coasl  of  Massachusetts,  and 
called  the  place  Plymouth.  A  large  rock,  known  as  Plymouth  Rock,  is  -up- 
posed  to  be  the  place  where  they  first  Btepped  ashore  This  event  is  spoken 
of  as  the  "  Landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers." 


136  OUTLINES   IN    HISTORY. 


THANKSGIVING  DAY. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Sufferings  of  Pilgrims  from  hunger  and  cold  of  the  northern 
winter. —  Sickness  and  death.  —  Planting  of  crops.  —  Lack  of  rain. 
—  Prayer  for  rain.  —  Abundant  harvest. — Thankfulness  of  Pil- 

■ 

grims.  —  Governor  Bradford  appointed  a  day  of  thanksgiving. — 
Services  in  the  meeting  house.  —  Rejoicing  lasted  three  days. — 
Custom  spread  to  all  parts  of  New  England;  to  all  parts  of  the 
country.  —  Who  appoints  Thanksgiving  Day  at  present  time?  — 
What  is  the  usual  date  ?  —  How  is  it  celebrated  ? 


Summary. 

In  the  fall  of  1621  the  Pilgrims  celebrated  the  first  Thanksgiving  Day. 
They  had  suffered  a  great  deal  from  cold,  sickness,  and  lack  of  food,  but  they 
had  planted  Indian  corn  and  potatoes  in  the  spring  and  in  the  fall  they  gath- 
ered in  a  laro;e  harvest. 

The  Pilgrims  felt  that  they  had  so  much  to  be  thankful  for  that  Governor 
Bradford  appointed  a  day  on  which  to  give  special  thanks.  The  men  went  out 
hunting  and  fishing  and  brought  home  wild  turkeys  and  deer.  The  women 
made  pumpkin  pies  and  corn-meal  bread. 

After  a  thanksgiving  service  in  the  meeting  house  they  went  to  their 
homes  and  held  a  great  feast. 

In  time,  Thanksgiving  Day  came  to  be  celebrated  all  over  the  country. 
The  day  is  appointed  now  by  the  President.  It  is  usually  the  last  Thurs- 
day in  Xovember. 


OUTLINES    EN    H1STCBY.  137 


STORY  OF  WILLIAM  PENN. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

His  birthplace  and  boyhood.  — The  religious  belief  of  hia  par- 
ents.—  His  change  of  religious  belief.  —  General  objection  in 
England  to  the  Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers.  —  Dress  of 
most  people  at  that  time.  —  Dress  and  form  of  speech  of  Quake 
—  His  father's  anger.  —  William  Perm's  imprisonment  —  II  - 
father's  forgiveness.  —  His  riches  inherited  from  his  father. — 
The  king's  gift. —  Penn's  colony. — The  shin  Welcome.  —  Voy- 
age  to  Pennsylvania.  —  What  is  the  meaning  of  sylvan? —  Rea- 
son for  the  names  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia.  Kensington. — 
Was  the  site  of  Philadelphia  well  chosen*.'  Why".'  —  Penn's 
treatment  of  the  Indians. — His  treaty  with  them  under  the 
"Treaty  Tree."  —  Purchase  of  land. — Laying  ou1  the  town. — 
How  did  he  name  the  streets?  —  Penn's  views  of  government 
and  education. 

Summary. 

William  Penn  was  an  Englishman.     He  was  boro  in  1644  and  died  in 
1718.     The  kino- of  England  gave  Penn  a  tracl   of  land  west  of  the  Dela- 
ware  River,  in  payment  of  a  debt  he  owed  lii-  father.     The  first    Bet 
arrived  in   1681.     Later  Penn   and  a  number  «>t"  other  Quakers  Bailed  I 
America  in  the.  ship   \Y<h-<>me. 

They  landed  November  8,  L682.  Be  founded  a  towa  and  gave  it  the 
name  of  Philadelphia,  which  means  "Brotherly  Love,"  because  he  hoped  il.at 
all  would  live  together  peacefully. 

Penn  was  very  kind  and  just,  and  made  a  treaty  with  tin-  Indians  under  an 


138  OUTLINES   IX   HISTORY. 

old  elm  tree.  The  spot  on  which  this  elm  tree  stood  is  now  marked  by  a 
marble  monument,  and  the  tract  of  laud  surrounding  it  is  called  Penn  Treaty 
Park. 

The  house  in  which  Penn  lived  in  Philadelphia  now  stands  in  Fairmount 
Park. 


STORY  OF  INDEPENDENCE  DAY. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Many  people  had  left  England  and  other  countries  of  Europe 
and  come  to  America  to  live.  Then  there  was  a  war  in 
Europe  between  England  and  France.  This  war  cost  England 
a  large  sum  of  money.  —  Taxation  of  colonists  without  represen- 
tation in  the  government.  —  Stamp  Act.  —  Tea  Act.  — Boston 
Tea  Party.  —  Indignation  of  colonists  at  the  injustice  of  Eng- 
land. —  Desire  to  be  a  separate  nation.  —  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence.—  What  was  it,  when  and  where  was  it  signed?  — 
"Where  was  it  written?  —  Who  wrote  it?  —  The  number  of  sign- 
ers.—  How  was  the  news  of  its  adoption  proclaimed?  —  What 
followed  its  adoption?  —  How  was  the  first  Independence  Day 
celebrated  ? 

Summary. 

Many  years  ago  England  owned  a  great  deal  of  land  in  America,  and  the 
people  who  lived  here  were  governed  by  England.  England  had  a  great 
many  debts  because  of  having  been  at  war  with  other  countries. 

To  obtain  money  to  pay  her  debts  England  commenced  to  tax  nearly  every- 
thing that  the  people  in  America  used.  Although  the  peojile  paid  these 
heavy  taxes,  they  were  not  allowed  to  help  make  the  laws. 

This  was  not  just,  so  the  people  in  America  decided  not  to  be  governed 


OUTLINES   IS    BISTORY.  1 

by  England  any  more,  but  to  declare  themselves  free  from  land  a 

establish  a  government  of  their  own. 

On  July  4,  1776,  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  adopted  in  the 
State   House   in  Philadelphia.     This  is  the  reason  thai    w<  July 

fourth  as  Independence  Day  every  year. 

After  this,  England  sent  armies  to  America,  an. 1  the  Revolutionary  War 
was  fought.     The  Americans  won  the  Avar  and  became  a  free  and  independi 
nation. 


THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  HOUSE. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Location  and  appearance.  —  Reason  for  its  being  built.  —  R 
son  for  the  name  "State  House."  — Later  Philadelphia  became  I 
capital  of  the  country. — Meaning  of  word  "capital."  —  What  is 
the  present  capital  of  Pennsylvania?  —  Of  the  United  States  ?  — 
Meaning; of  word  "Congress."  —  Continental  Congress  me<  id  the 
east  room  on  the  first  floor  of  the  State  House  —  Meeting  of  dele- 
gates in  that  room  to  consider  England's  treatmeni  of  ti         lo- 
rries.—  Decision  to  adopt  the  Declaration  of   Independence. — 
Liberty   Bell   and    its   inscription,    Leviticus    _:>  :  LO,  —  R« 
for  names  "  Liberty  Bell "  and  "  Independence  1  [all." 

At  a  later  period  it  was  used  as  the  City  Hall  of  Philadelphia 
until  the  erection  of  the  present  City  Hall. 

After  a  visit  to  Independence   Hall,  a  description    of   many 
famous  relics  and  documents  can  be  given  by  the  pupils. 

Summary. 

The  State  House  is  on  Chestnut  Street  between  Fifth  and  Sixth  si 
It  was  at  first  a  single  brick  building,  two  stories  in  height.     Afterward  two 


1-iO  OUTLINES   IN   HISTORY. 

other  buildings  were  erected,  one  on  each  side  of  the  first.  These  three  are 
now  joined  by  means  of  arches.  Later  a  tower  was  built  and  in  1752  a  bell 
was  purchased  in  England  and  placed  in  it. 

It  had  a  large  yard  which  extended  to  Walnut  Street.  This  is  now  called 
Independence  Square.  On  the  pavement  on  Chestnut  Street  stands  a 
statue  of  George  Washington. 

At  first  law-makers  met  there  and  made  laws  for  Pennsylvania.  After- 
ward  Philadelphia  became  the  capital  of  the  whole  country,  and  Congress 
met  there. 

The  principal  event  that  occurred  there  was  the  adoption  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  This  took  place  on  the  Fourth  of  July,  1776.  In 
this  building  also  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed,  although  all 
the  names  were  not  signed  on  that  day. 

The  people  of  Philadelphia  gathered  in  the  yard  of  the  State  House  and 
waited  for  the  news.  At  last  the  bell  in  the  tower  was  rung.  This  was  the 
signal  which  told  them  that  the  Declaration  of  Independence  had  been 
adopted. 

This  event  brought  on  the  Revolutionary  War,  bv  which  we  became  a  free 
and  independent  nation. 

After  this  the  State  House  was  called  Independence  Hall  and  the  bell  was 
called  the  Liberty  Bell. 

The  building  at  the  corner  of  Sixth  and  Chestnut  streets  was  called  Con- 
gress Hall  because  Congress  met  there  for  ten  years  after  Washington  be- 
came President. 

In  Independence  Hall  there  are  many  relics  connected  with  the  early  his- 
tory of  our  country.  The  old  Liberty  Bell  is  kept  there,  as  well  as  portraits 
of  many  men  famous  in  the  history  of  our  country. 

The  Liberty  Bell  was  made  in  Whitechapel,  in  England,  and  brought  to 
Philadelphia  in  1752.  It  was  cracked  at  the  trial  ringing  before  it  was  hung 
in  the  State  House  and  was  recast  by  Pass  and  Stow  of  Philadelphia.  After 
it  was  repaired,  it  was  hung  in  the  tower  of  the  State  House  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1777  the  bell  was  taken  to  Allentown  to  prevent  its  being  captured  by  the 
British,  who  were  about  to  take  possession  of  Philadelphia.  This  was  a  very 
long  journey  in  those  days.  After  the  British  left  Philadelphia  it  was 
brought  back  to  the  State  House.     The  old  tower  being  out  of  repair,  it  was 


OUTLINES    IN    IIIsTui:y\ 

not  considered  safe  to  place  the  bell  there.  The  framework  on  which  the 
bell  hung  was  placed  lower  down,  where  it  was  supported  by  the  l>ii<k  part 
of  the  tower. 

The  bell  is  three  feet  in  height  and  the  circumference  of  the  base  is  I 
feet.     It  weighs  2,080  pounds.     Around  the  crown  of  the  bell  is    be  prophetic 
inscription,  "Proclaim  liberty  throughout  all  the  land   unto  all   the  inhabi- 
tants thereof.     Lev.  xxv,  X." 

Immediately  under  this  inscription  is  another,  also  in  a  line  encir 
bell :  — 

By   Order   of  the   Assembly  of  the  Province    of   Pennsylvania  for  the 
State  House  in  Philada. 

Pass  and  Stow 
Philada. 

MDCCLIII. 


STORY  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

His  birthplace.  —  His  boyhoodand  education.  —  Bis  character. 

—  His  truthfulness.  — Washington  and  the  cherry  tree.  — French 
and  Indian  War.  —  His  errand  to  Fort  Du  Quesne.  —  England's 
treatment  of  the  colonies  in  America.  —  The  Revolutionary  War. 

—  Washington  appointed  commander-in-chief.  —  Love  ol 
soldiers  for  Washington.  —  (lose  of  the  Revolutionary  War.— 
Washington  elected  President.  —  Death  at  .Mom,.  Vernon.— 
Reason  for  the  term  "Father  of  his  Country."  —  Meaning  of  the 
term  "First  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  lirst  in  the  hearts  of  I  - 
countrymen."  —  Celebration  of  Washington's  birthday. 


142  OUTLINES    IX    HISTORY. 


Summary, 

Geonre  "Washington,  who  is  calle<l  the  "  Father  of  his  Country,"  was  bom 
in  Virginia,  February  22,  173'2.  His  parents  were  rich,  but  this  did  not  make 
him  proud  or  lazy.  His  father  died  when  he  was  quite  young.  He  was 
educated  by  his  mother,  who  taught  him  to  be  good  and  truthful.  He  grew 
to  be  a  noble  man. 

When  the  Revolutionary  "War  between  the  American  colonies  and  England 
broke  out,  he  was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  He  was  willing 
to  serve  his  country.     He  was  a  wise  and  brave  general. 

When  the  war  was  over,  England  gave  up  all  control  over  the  colonies. 
After  the  colonies  became  free,  they  were  called  the  United  States  of  America 
and  George  Washington  was  chosen  to  be  the  first  President.  He  served  two 
terms,  or  eight  years. 

The  people  wanted  him  to  serve  another  term.  He  refused  because  he  did 
not  think  it  was  right  for  the  same  man  to  be  President  more  than  two  terms. 
He  died  at  his  beautiful  home  at  Mount  Vernon  in  1799. 

Because  he  is  considered  the  greatest  American,  and  because  the  people  wish 
to  show  how  much  they  love  and  honor  him  for  his  services  to  his  country,  he 
is  often  spoken  of  as  "First  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of 
his  countrymen." 


THE  FLAG. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Betsy  Ross.  —  Her  place  of  residence.  —  Her  occupation. — 
Why  she  was  chosen  to  make  the  flag.  —  Committee  appointed 
to  call  on  her.  —  Discussion  in  reference  to  the  kind  of  star. 

Why  are  there  thirteen  stripes  in  the  flag?  How  many  stars 
are  on  our  flag  now  ?     Why  ?     What  is  meant  by  "  Star  Spangled 


OUTLINES    IX    BISTORT. 

Banner"?     What  does  our  flag  signify,  no  matter  w]         it  u 
seen  ?     On  tins  account,  of  what  service  is  it  to  Americana  I 


Summary. 

Betsy  Ross  lived  in  Philadelphia  at  239  Arch  Street.     She  was  noted 
being  a  fine  needlewoman,  and  had  made  nrffled-bosom  shirl 
Washington.     Congress  appointed  a  committee  to  ask  her  to  make  a   0 
according  to  a  design  which  had  been  adopted.     General  Washington,  Rol 
Morris,  and  her  uncle,  Colonel  Ross,  formed  the  committee.     The  design  I 
the  flag  contained  six-pointed  stars,  but  she  thought  that  five-point 
would  be  better.     The  five-pointed  star  was  the  one  used 

The  first  American  flag  was  made  by  Betsy  Ross  at  239  Arch  Stn 
Philadelphia,  On  June  14,  1777,  Congress  adopted  a  Hag  of  red  and  w] 
stripes  with  a  blue  field  studded  with  white  stars  as  the  flag  i  t  the  Unil 
States. 

The  first  flag  contained  thirteen  stripes  and  thirteen  stars.     Our  flag  r. 
has  thirteen  stripes  and  fortv-five  stars.     Each  -tar  means  ;i  state. 
time  a  state  is  admitted  to  the  Union  a  star  is  added  to  the  fl     . 

Each  color  in  the  flag  has  a  meaning.     Red  means  divine  love,  corn      .  and 
glory.     White  means  purity  and  truth.     Blue  means  peace  and  justi         Tl 
flag  floats  from  jmblic  buildings  and  vessels,  and  insures  the  protection  of  ; 
United  States  to  all  American  people. 


LYDIA  DARRAGH. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Why  were  English  soldiers  in  the  house  .of  an  American?  — 
Meaning:  of   the  term    "headquarters."  —  Necessity    for   Becr< 
meetings  of   the  English   officers.  —  Why  did    Lydia    Darragh 


144  OUTLINES   IN   HISTORY. 

listen  to  the  plans  of  the  English  and  send  the  news  to  Washing- 
ton?—  Meaning  of  the  word  "patriotism."  —  Are  there  any  pa- 
triots in  our  country  to-day  ?  —  How  can  we  show  our  patriotism  ? 


Summary. 

General  Howe  commanded  the  English  army  in  Philadelphia  during  the 
Revolutionary  War.  He  established  his  headquarters  at  the  house  of  William 
and  Lydia  Darragh.  "Whenever  he  held  meetings  with  his  officers  to  consider 
plans  for  carrying  on  the  Avar,  he  ordered  every  one  in  the  family  to  go  to 
bed. 

One  night  they  held  a  secret  meeting  for  the  purpose  cf  planning  a  surprise 
attack  to  destroy  the  American  army.  Lydia  Darragh  listened  at  the  door 
and  heard  all  of  then*  arrangements. 

The  next  day  she  obtained  permission  to  go  to  Frankford  to  buy  some  flour. 
While  she  was  away  from  home  she  succeeded  in  sending  to  General  Wash- 
ington the  news  of  the  intended  attack. 

By  this  means  the  Americans  were  prepared  for  the  attack  and  the  British 
were  defeated. 

General  Howe  never  knew  how  his  plans  were  discovered  by  the  Americans. 


VALLEY  FORGE. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Revolutionary  War  in  progress.  —  Necessity  for  shelter  during 
the  winter  season.  —  Encampment  at  Valley  Forge  on  the 
Schuylkill  River.  —  Hewing  trees  and  building  huts  plastered 
with  mud.  —  Poverty  of  the  government.  —  No  money  or  supplies 
for  the  army.  —  Sufferings  and  deprivations  of  the  soldiers.  — 
Lack  of  beds  and  bed  clothing.  —  Lack  of  shoes,  stockings,  and 


O UTL1 N ES    IN    III ST(  > I :  V .  145 

other  clothing. — Lack  of  food.  —  Washington's  prayers,  and  hu 

encouragement  of  the  army.  —  Bravery  and   patriotism  i       ti 

CD  %J  %  \ 

suffering  soldiers.  —  Their  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  their  can 

and  country. 

Summary. 

As  the  fio'htingj  could  not  be  continued  during  the  winter,  the   An  • 
army  under  General  Washington  went  into  winter  quarters  al  : 

The  soldiers  marched  to  the  woods,  cut  down  trees,  and  built  log  huta,  in 
which  they  passed  the  winter.  They  had  no  bedding  of  any  kind  and  the 
little  clothing  which  they  had  was  in  rags. 

When  they  marched,  the  icy  ground  was  tracked  with  blood  from  tl 
bare  feet. 

Thev  had  little  to  eat,  and  nearly  died  of  cold  and  starvation.     Only  lore 
for  their  country  and  their  desire  to  gain  independence  for  the  nation 
them  corn-age  to  endure  the  terrihle  hardships. 

At  the  close  of  tins  winter  of  suffering^  news  reached  the  camp  thai   !'• 
jamin  Franklin  had  succeeded  in  persuading  the  king  of  France  to  asfl  it  the 
Americans  in  then-  struggle  for  liberty. 


LAFAYETTE 

Conversational  Lesson. 


A  youth  of  twenty  at  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War. — 
His  wealth  and  social  position  at  the  French  court  —  Position  in 
the  French  army.  — Desire  to  help  the  American  colonies.— 
Objection  of  his' family  and  the  French  government.  —  Disol 
dience  would  make  him  liable  to  punishment  as  n  deserter.— 
Presented  himself  to  the  American  agents  (Silas   Deane,  Benj* 


148  OUTLINES    IX    HISTORY. 

min  Franklin,  Arthur  Lee)  in  Paris.  —  Terms  of  his  contract,  to 
serve  as  major-general  without  pay.  —  Difficulty  in  getting  away 
from  France.  —  Purchase  of  a  vessel  at  his  own  expense.  —  Giv- 
ing up  his  estates  and  position  in  France.  —  After  a  two  months' 
voyage  he  landed  in  South  Carolina,  June,  1777.  —  Rode  on 
horseback  to  Philadelphia  and  presented  himself  to  Congress  in 
the  State  House.  —  Service  in  American  army.  —  Friendship 
between  Washington  and  Lafayette.  —  Wounded  in  the  leg  at 
the  Battle  of  Brandywine.  —  Yisited  America  fifty  years  later 
when  he  was  an  old  man.  —  Entertained  at  Independence  Hall. 

Summary. 

Lafayette  was  a  rich  and  titled  Frenchman  who  came  to  this  country 
ay  hen  he  was  a  young  man  to  help  the  Americans  in  their  war  for  freedom, 
lie  became  an  officer  in  the  American  army,  and  not  only  served  without  pay, 
but  supplied  a  great  many  soldiers  with  fire-arms  and  clothing  at  his  own 
expense.  When  lie  came  to  America  fifty  years  later  lie  was  welcomed  by 
all  on  account  of  his  services  to  the  Americans  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

His  birthplace  and  boyhood.  —  Poverty  of  his  father.  —  Two 
years  of  school.  —  Apprenticeship  to  his  brother  to  learn  print- 
insr.  —  His  leaving:  home  and  ^oino;  to  New  York  and  thence  to 
Philadelphia.  —  His  poverty.  —  His  energy  and  hard  work.  — 
His  thrift  and  economy.  —  Establishment  of  his  printing  house 


OUTLINES    IX    HISTORY.  147 

and  newspaper.  —  " Poor  Richard's  Almanac."  —  [nteresl  in  <•!•  - 
tricity. —  Flying  of  his  kite  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ninth  and 
Eace  streets,  Philadelphia. — Invention  of  the  lightning  rod. — 
Journey  to  Paris  as  acrent  for  the  United  Stated  erovernment — 
His  invention  of  the  stove.  —  How  were  houses  heated  prior  to 
this?  —  Mention  some  of  the  uses  that  electricity  basal  present  — 
His  establishment  of  the  first  public  library  in  Philadelphia. 

Of  what  value  is  a  public  library '.' 

Franklin's  place  of  burial  at  the  corner  of  Fifth  and  Arch 
streets.  —  His  statue  on  the  pavement  near  the  Philadelphia 
post  office. 


Summary. 

Benjamin  Franklin  was  born  in  Boston.     He  was  the  son  <>f  a  poor  n 
who  could  afford  to  send  him  to  school  only  two  years.     He  Learned  t<>  !.. 
jmnter,  and  when  he  became  a  young  man  he  left  home  and  worked  bis  w 
to  Philadelphia.     He  read  and  studied  early  in  the  morning  and  late  at  night 
bv  the  ligdit  of  a  candle.     He  worked  hard  and  saved  enough  money  i-> 
into  business  for  himself.     He  published  a  newspaper  and  also  a  little  1'".  k 
called  "Poor  Richard's  Almanac."      This  contained   information  about   I 
time  of  sunrise,  sunset  and  tides,  predictions  aboul  the  weather,  and  many 
short  sayings  which  gave  people  good  advice. 

He  became  interested  in  the  study  of  electricity.  By  flying  a  kite  which 
he  made  after  a  great  deal  of  thought,  he  found  that  lightning  and  electricity 
were  the  same  thing.  What  he  learned  led  him  t.»  invent  the  lightning  rod 
This  was  the  beo-innW  of  all  the  wonderful  uses  which  electricity  no* 

He  made  the  first  stoye.  He  also  founded  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
and  started  the  first  public  library  in  Philadelphia. 


148  OUTLINES   IX    HISTORY. 


STEPHEN  GIRARD. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Birthplace.  —  Positions  of  father  and  grandfather  in  the  French 
navy. —  Entered  merchant  marine  service. — Accident  of  storm 
drove  his  vessel  into  Delaware  Bay,  in  1776. — Howe's  hlock- 
ink'.  —  Establishment  of  business  on  Water  Street- 
Yellow  fever  in  Philadelphia,  1793.  —  Horrors  of  the  disease.  — 
Its  contagions  character.  —  Flight  of  the  j3eople  leaving  all  their 
jDOsscssions  and  the  sick  of  their  families.  —  Awful  number  of 
deaths.  —  Manner  of  collecting  the  dead.  —  Effect  on  business 
and  social  life.  — Lack  of  nurses  in  the  hospital  in  the  suburbs 
at  Bush  Hill  (now  Seventeenth  and  Spring  Garden  streets). 

Girard's  offer  of  his  services.  —  Two  months'  constant  attend- 
ance at  the  pesthouse.  —  Removing  the  sick  to  the  hospital  in 
his  private  carriage. 

His  purchase  of  all  of  the  outstanding  stock  of  the  United 
States  Bank,  1812.  —  Refusal  of  Congress  to  re-charter  it. — 
Establishment  of  his  private  bank  under  the  name  of  "  Bank  of 
Stephen  Girard."     This  averted  a  financial  panic. 

On  account  of  the  war,  the  government  attempted  to  raise  five 
million  dollars,  1815.  —  Only  twenty  thousand  subscribed. — 
Girard  pledged  his  fortune,  thus  saving  the  army  from  disbanding 
and  the  country  from  dishonor  and  defeat. 

Government  wished  to  re-establish  the  United  States  Bank. — 
Girard  made  it  possible  by  subscribing  three  million  dollars. 

Consider  his  kindness  to  the  poor.  —  His  love  for  children  and 


OUT  LINKS    IX    BISTORT.  J 

dumb  animals.  —  His  bravery.  —  TI  is  generosity.  —  Hia  en 
and  activity.  —  His  charity.  —  His  numerous   bequ<  be 

public  good. 

Summary. 

Stephen  Girard  was  born  in  Bordeaux,  France.     When  1  v  op  I 

gaged  in  commerce  and  became  captain  of  a  vessel.     He  came 
and  started  in  business  in  Philadelphia  at  the  beginning  of  the  I  i * •  \  < »I m t  • 
War. 

Xearly  twenty  years  later  yellow  fever  broke  out  in  Philadelphia.     I  '•  >r  I 
months  he  took  care  of  the  sick  people  in  the  hospital  at  the  risk  of  his  own 
life. 

He  was  patriotic  and  generous,  brave  and  charitable,  and   very   fond   oi 
children  and  dumb  animals. 

Several  times  he  saved  the  credit  of  the  country  bv  loaning  the  _ 
money.     He  left  large  sums  of  money  in  his  will  for  the  improvement  of  I 
state  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  water  front  of  Philadelphia. 

He  also  willed  a  lar^e  amount  of  monev  to  establish  a  home         trphan 
boys  where  they  could  receive  an  education.     This  is  called  Girard  Colle 
and  occupies  that  part  of  Girard  Avenue  between  Nineteenth  an. I  Twenl 
fifth  streets. 

On  account  of  his  public  services,  a  statue  of  Stephen  Girard  wsa  placed 
the  pavement  near  the  City  Hall. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

His  birthplace.  —  The  poverty  of  his  parents  and  their  la< 
of  education.  —  Removal,  to  Indiana  and  later  to   Qlinois.  —  Bis 

occupation  as  wood  cutter  and  rail  splitter.  —  His  effort*  to  obtain 


150  OUTLINES    IX    HISTOHY. 

an  education  without  having  the  advantage  of  schools. — How 
he  purchased  his  first  book  ("The  Life  of  Washington").  —  Tlis 
energy  led  him  to  walk  miles  for  the  purpose  of  borrowing 
books.  —  Occupation  as  store-keeper.  —  How  he  became  a  law- 
yer.—  Election  to  the  legislature  of  Illinois;  later  to  Congress; 
and  still  later  to  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States.  — 
Agriculture  in  the  South  required  many  laborers  and  led  to  the 
general  practice  of  slavery.  — Growing  opposition  to  slavery. — 
South  Carolina's  attempt  to  leave  the  Union.  —  The  Civil  War. 
—  Emancipation  Proclamation.  —  His  speech  at  Gettysburg.— 
Close  of  the  war.  —  Assassination  of  Lincoln.  —  Why  was  he  called 
"  Honest  Abe  "  ?  —  A  statue  of  Lincoln  is  in  Fairmount  Park,  near 
the  Green  Street  entrance. 

Summary. 

Abraham  Lincoln  was  born  February  12,  1809,  in  a  log  cabin  in  Kentucky. 
His  parents  were  very  poor.  While  he  was  still  very  young  lie  was  obliged 
to  earn  his  living  by  chopping  wood  and  splitting  rails  for  fences.  There 
were  no  schools  near  his  home  and  his  mother  taught  him  to  read  and  write. 
He  had  a  few  books,  and  these  he  studied  over  and  over  at  night  after  work- 
in  "•  hard  all  day. 

When  he  grew  older  he  moved  to  Illinois  and  studied  law.  lie  was  so  suc- 
cessful and  made  such  line  speeches  that  the  people  all  over  the  country 
began  to  hear  of  him.  Then  lie  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  people  of 
Illinois.  He  was  opposed  to  slavery  and  often  spoke  against  it.  In  18G0 
he  was  elected  President  of  the  United  States. 

While  he  was  President  the  Civil  War  took  place.  He  was  a  very  wise 
and  just  President.  He  issued  the  Emancipation  Proclamation,  which  de- 
clared all  slaves  to  be  free. 

Some  people  did  not  like  him  because  he  was  opposed  to  slavery.  In 
1865  he  was  shot  by  a  man  named  Wilkes  Booth.  Lincoln  was  a  good 
and  upright   man,  whom  we  love  to  honor. 


OUTLINES    EN    BISTOBY. 


MEMORIAL  DAY. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Who  were  some  of  the  prominent  officers  of  the  army  during 
the  Civil  War ?  —  Why  were  the  soldiers  ready  to  answei  Lin- 
coln's call  and   join   the   army?  —  Bravery  of    the   soldiera 

Readiness  to  sacrifice  home,  health,  comfort,  and  life.  —  Suffer- 
ings of  the  soldiers  during  the  war  andafter  it  was  over.  —  Whirl! 
day  of  each  year  is  set  apart  for  the  purpose  of  honoring  them  '.' 

—  Why  is  it  called  Memorial  Day? —  How  do  we  celebrate  it  '.' 

—  What  ismeantby  G.  A.  R.  ?  —  Why  do  the  soldiers  take  such 
an  active  part  in  these  ceremonies?  —  Whv  is  the  flag  of  our 
country  displayed  on  that  day?  —  How  can  we  show  our  love  for 
our  countrv  ? 

Summary. 

During  the  Civil   War  many  soldiers  lost  their  live<  in  the  def 
nation.     Many  others  became  ruined  in  health  by  wounds  and  exposure,  and 
these  also  died  for  our  country.     To  show  thai  we  honor  and  revei  Bra 

for  then-  brave  sacrifice,  we  strew  their  graves  with  flowers  on  Memorial  1 ' 
of  each  year. 

May  30  was  appointed  by  General  Logan  for  this  purpose  in  18C8,     At' 
ward  it  was  made  a  legal  holiday,  and  as  Mich  it  is  observed  in  many 


J  52  OUTLINES    EN    HISTORY. 


TRAVEL  BY  LAND  AND  WATER. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Wild  condition  of  the  country  and  of  the  roads  in  early  times. 

—  Use  of  stage  coach,  emigrant  wagon,  sedan  chair,  omnibus, 
horses,  and  oxen.  —  Pictures  of  these  can  be  seen  in  many  books. 

—  Toll  gates,  and  reasons  for  them.  —  Omnibus  routes. 
First  steam  wagon  built  by  George  Stephenson. 
Sailing  vessels.  —  Length  of  time  for  an  ocean  voyage. 
Present   modes  of   conveyance  for  short  distances;   foi  long 

distances  on  land  and  water. 

Summary. 

In  olden  times  people  could  not  travel  so  quickly  as  they  can  now.  They 
were  obliged  to  walk  or  to  use  horses  and  wagons.  Two  people  often  rode 
on  the  back  of  one  horse.  'When  they  wished  to  take  a  long  journey,  wagons 
drawn  by  oxen  were  often  employed.  The  roads  were  very  poor,  and  toll 
was  collected  to  keep  them  in  repair. 

The  first  stage  coach  that  ran  between  Xew  York  and  Philadelphia  took 
three  days  to  make  the  iournev.  This  coach  was  called  "  The  Flying  Ma- 
chine."  Later  on  there  were  omnibuses  in  the  cities  of  Xew  York  and 
Philadelphia  to  carry  people  from  one  part  of  the  city  to  another. 

Travel  on  the  ocean  was  also  very  slow.  Before  steam  was  used,  it  took 
sailing  vessels  two  or  three  months  to  cross  the  ocean. 

The  first  locomotive,  or  steam  wagon,  was  constructed  by  an  Englishman 
named  George  Stephenson.  It  traveled  at  the  rate  of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
miles  an  hour.     At  its  trial  trip  it  was  raced  against  a  fast  horse. 

At  the  present  time  the  use  of  steam  and  electricity  permits  us  to  travel 
very  rapidly.     Locomotives  are  run  by  steam,  trolley  cars  and  motor  wagons 


OUTLINES    IN    BISTOlfcx.  1 

are  run  by  electricity.     The  distance  between  New  York  and  Philadi 

can  now  be  traveled  in  two  hours. 

Vessels  crossing  the  ocean  are  run  by  steam  and  make  the  journey  betwi 
Europe  and  America  in  one  week. 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION. 

Conversational  Lesson. 

Why  is  postage  charged  ?  Who  receives  the  money  What 
does  the  postage  stamp  on  a  letter  indicate??  Wlmi  is  the 
advantage  of  having  a  systematic  postal  service?  In  whit  other 
ways  can  messages  be  sent  to  distant  places  ? 

In   how   many  ways   is   steam    of   use  in  sending  mess 
Electricity?     By  what  means  does  a  message  reach  the  great< 
number  of  people  ? 

Why  is  rapid  communication  between  distant    places 
necessarv  now  than  in  the  time  of  William  Perm  V 

Why  are  telegraph  hues  built  beside  railroads? 

Summary. 

In  early  times,  when  people  wished  to  send  me  3,  a  man  was  em] 

to  carrv  the  letter.     He  either  walked  or  used  horses  to  make  the  jounn 

After  this,  stage  routes  for  carrying  mails  and   people   we  tablis] 

Thes3  stages  were  wagons  drawn  by  horses,  and   were  called   post 
When  the  journey  was  a  long  one  the  horses  were  changed  at   dil 
places  along  the  road. 

A  stage  route  was  established  between  Providence  and  Boston.  Another 
ran  between  Xew  York  and  BoBton.     The  round  trip  on  this  r  ipie  1 

one  month.     Another  sta^e  route  was  established  between   New  Yuik  and 


154  OUTLINES   m   HISTORY. 

Philadelphia.     This  journey  occupied  three  days  each  way.     Two  trips  were 
made  each  week. 

At  a  later  date  the  colonies  all  united  in  the  formation  of  a  general  post- 
office  system.  Benjamin  Franklin  was  one  of  the  first  to  take  charge  of  this 
work.  In  order  to  make  the  system  more  satisfactory,  he  took  a  journey 
through  the  colonies.     This  occupied  a  period  of  live  months. 

Unless  the  mails  were  large  they  were  carried  in  saddle  bags  by  men  on 
horseback.  In  places  at  a  distance,  mail  was  not  taken  until  there  was  enough 
in  postage  on  the  letters  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  journey. 

When  railroads  and  steam  vessels  were  established,  it  became  possible  to 
deliver  mail  more  rapidly. 

In  addition  to  the  rapid  mail  service  which  extends  to  every  part  of  the 
country,  we  can  now  send  messages  by  telegraph  and  telephone.  Both  of 
these  means  of  communication  have  been  improved  by  Thomas  Edison,  al- 
though he  did  not  invent  them. 

The  telegraph  was  invented  by  Samuel  Morse.  This  is  an  instrument 
-which  sends  sounds  by  means  of  electricity  from  one  point  to  another  along  a 
wire.  Each  word  or  phrase  is  expressed  by  a  certain  sound.  These  sounds 
are  made  at  one  point  and  received  at  another.  Those  who  operate  the  in- 
strument know  what  word  each  sound  represents. 

The  first  telegraph  line  was  established  between  Washington  and  Balti- 
more. The  first  message  that  was  sent  by  this  means  was  :  "  What  hath  God 
wrought?"   (Numbers  23:23). 

At  first  only  one  message  could  be  sent  over  the  wire  at  a  time.  Edison 
has  so  improved  this  that  at  present  three  messages  can  be  sent  in  each  direc- 
tion over  a  single  wire,  making  six  messages  in  all.  Messages  can  also  be 
telegraphed  from  moving  trains  by  means  of  wires  laid  along  the  tracks. 
This  is  also  due  to  Edison. 

The  telephone  is  an  instrument  so  arranged  that  the  vibrations  of  the  human 
voice  at  one  point  are  carried  by  an  electric  wire  to  a  distant  point  and  re- 
peated so  that  the  words  can  be  distinctly  understood. 

Thomas  Edison  improved  the  telephone  by  inventing  the  transmitter  and 
the  microphone.  The  transmitter  receives  the  spoken  words  which  are  to  be 
carried  along  the  electric  wire.  The  microphone  magnifies  sound  so  that  a 
very  low  sound  can  be  heard  distinctly  at  a  distance. 


OUTLINES    IX    BISTOBY.  1 

In  addition  to  sending  messages  in  this  rapid  way  in  our  own  country,  we 
can  send  them  across  the  ocean  by  means   of    the    Atlantic  Cable.     ( 
Field  formed  a  company  to  lay  a  cable  across  the  Atlantic  (  I  and  the 

Great  Eastern  Avas  the  name  of  the  vessel  that  successfully  mplis]  i 

this  work  in  1866. 

A  system  of  wireless  telegraphy  has  also  been  invented  recently.  By  i  - 
system  messages  can  be  sent  through  the  air  from  one  vessel  i"  another.  At 
present,  messages  can  be  sent  by  this  system  a  distance  of  twenty-two  mi 

In  addition  to  these  ways  of  sending  me>sages.  we  have  hundred* 
papers  printed  daily  all  over  the  country. 

When  we  think  of  the  length  of  time  that  it  formerly  took  to  send 
sages  to  a  distant  place,  we  can  easily  see  the  great  advantage  we  now  have 
from  the  use  of  steam  and  electricity  in  sending  messages  quickly. 

AVe  must  always  remember  that  we  owe  the  modern  conveniences  obtaii  I 
from  the  use  of  electricity  to  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  discovered  that 
lightning  and  electricity  were  the  same  thing  and  that  it  could  be  of  use  to 


PLACES  OF  HISTORICAL  INTEREST  IN 

PHILADELPHIA. 

Betsy  Boss  House,  239  Arch  Street,  where  the  first  American  Hag  1 

made. 

Carpenters'  Hall,  rear  of  322  Chestnut  Street,  occupied  by  the  Firsl   ( 
tinental  Congress  until  the  State  House  was  ready  for  occupancy. 

Chew  House,  Germantown  Avenue  and  Johnson  Street  The  Battle  of 
Germantown  in  the  Revolutionary  War  Mas  fought  around  this  house,  which 
was  occupied  by  English  soldiers. 

Independence  Hall,  Chestnut  Street,  between  Fifth  and   Sixth 

Perm  Treaty  Park,  in  the  section  of  Philadelphia  known  as   Kensingt 
on  the  Delaware  River,  at  the  foot  of  Hanover  Street     In  this  is  a  monu- 
ment erected  to  mark  the  spot  where  the  elm  tree  Mood  under  which  Penn 
made  the  treaty  with  the  Indians. 


156  OUTLINES    IN    HISTORY. 

Gloria  Dei  (Old  Swedes')  Church,  Swanson  Street,  below  Christian  Street 
Grave  of  Benjamin  Franklin  in  Christ  Church  burying-ground  at  Fifth 

and  Arch  street-. 

Girard  College,  Girard  Avenue,  near  Twentieth  Street. 

Christ  Church,  Second  Street,  above  Market  Street,  This  church  was  at- 
tended by  General  Washington,  Betsy  Ross,  and  John  Ross. 

The  following  places  are  in  Fairmount  Park :  — 

General  (nam's  log  cabin  near  Lemon  Hill.  This  cabin  was  brought 
from  the  James  River  in  Virginia,  where  it  was  used  by  General  Grant  as  his 
headquarters  during  the  last  few  months  of  the  Civil  War. 

William  Penn's  House,  west  of  Girard  Avenue  bridge.  This  house  was 
built  south  of  Market  Street  between  Front  and  Second  streets.  As  houses 
were  built  around  it  a  street  was  made,  which,  in  honor  of  Penn's  daughter, 
was  called  Letitia. 

Grant  Monument  and  Mount  Pleasant  are  east  of  the  Schuylkill  "River 
drive,  north  of  Girard  Avenue.  The  mansion  was  once  owned  by  Benedict 
Arnold.     It  is  now  used  as  a  restaurant  and  is  called  "The  Dairy." 

Lemon  Hill  was  originally  the  country  seat  of  Robert  Morris. 

Lincoln  Monument  is  near  the  Green  Street  entrance. 


AMERICA. 

My  country !  't  is  of  thee, 
Sweet  land  of  liberty, 

Of  thee  I  sing ; 
Land  where  my  fathers  died! 
Land  of  the  Pilgrims1  pride ! 
From  everv  mountain  side 

Let  freedom  ring ! 

My  native  country,  thee, 
Land  of  the  noble  free, 
Thy  name  I  love ; 


u 


'  . 


OUTLINES    IN    BDB5TOBY. 

I  love  thy  rocks  and  rills, 
Thy  woods  and  templed  hills; 
My  heart  with  rapture  thril 
Like  that  above. 

Let  music  swell  the  breeze, 
And  ring  from  all  the  trees, 
Sweet  freedom's  song ; 
Let  mortal  tongues  awake; 
Let  all  that  breathe  partake  ; 
Let  rocks  their  silence  break,— 
The  sound  prolong. 

Onr  fathers'  God !  to  Thee, 
Author  of  liberty, 

To  Thee  we  sing ; 
Long  may  our  land  be  bright 
With  freedom's  holy  light; 
Protect  us  by  Thy  might, 

Great  God,  our  King! 

Samuel  Fbahcm  Smith,  D.U 


HAIL,  COLUMBIA. 

Hail,  Columbia,  happy  land ! 

Hail,  ye  heroes,  heaven-bom  band! 
Who  loaght  and  bled  in  Freedom's  cai 

Who  fought  and  bled  in  Freedom's  cause* 
And  when  the  storm  of  war  was  gone, 
Enjoyed  the  peace  your  valor  won. 
Let  independence  be  your  boast, 
Ever  mindful  what  it  cost, 
Ever  grateful  for  the  prize, 
Let  its  altar  reach  the  skies. 


lo8  OUTLINES    IX    BISTOBY. 

Chorus. 

Firm,  united,  let  us  be, 
Rallying  round  our  liberty! 
As  a  Land  of  brothers  joined, 
Peace  and  safety  we  shall  find. 

Immortal  patriots,  rise  once  more! 
Defend  your  rights,  defend  your  shore; 
Let  no  rude  foe  with  impious  hand, 
Let  no  rude  foe  with  impious  hand, 
Invade  the  shrine  where  sacred  lies, 
Of  toil  and  blood  the  well-earned  prize; 
While  offering  peace  sincere  and  just, 
In  Heaven  Ave  place  a  manly  trust 
That  truth  and  justice  shall  prevail, 
And  every  scheme  of  bondage  fail. 


THE  LANDING  OF  THE  PILGRIM  FATHERS. 

The  breaking  waves  dashed  high 

On  a  stern  and  rockbound  coast, 
And  the  woods  against  a  stormy  sky 

Their  giant  branches  tossed  ; 
And  the  heavy  nio:ht  hung  dark 

The  hills  and  waters  o'er, 
When  a  band  of  exiles  moored  their  bark 

On  the  wild  New  England  shore. 

Not  as  the  conqueror  comes, 

They,  the  true-hearted,  came ; 
Not  with  the  roll  of  the  stirring  drums, 

And  the  trumpet  that  sings  of  fame ; 
Not  as  the  flying  come, 


OUTLINES    IN    HISTORY,  J 

In  silence  and  in  fear;  — 
They  shook  the  depths  of  the  desert  gloom 
With  their  hymns  of  lofty  cheer. 

Amidst  the  storm  thev  saner. 

And  the  stars  heard  and  the  sea  : 
And  the  sounding  aisles  of  the  dim  woods  raw? 

To  the  anthem  of  the  free ! 
The  ocean  eagle  soared 

From  his  nest  by  the  white  wave's  foam. 
And  the  rocking  pines  of  the  forest  roared  — 

This  was  their  welcome  home. 

There  were  men  with  hoary  hair 

■ 

Amidst  that  Pilgrim  band  :  — 
Why  had  they  come  to  wither  there, 

Away  from  their  childhood's  land? 
There  was  woman's  fearless  eye, 

Lit  by  her  deep  loye's  truth  ; 
There  was  manhood's  brow  serenely  high, 

And  the  fiery  heart  of  youth. 

What  sought  they  thus  afar?  — 

Bright  jewels  of  the  mine  ? 
The  wealth  of  seas,  the  spoils  of  war?  — 

They  sought  a  faith's  pure  shrine] 
Av,  call  it  holv  ground, 

The  soil  where  first  they  trod  ! 
Thev  left  unstained  what  there  they  found. — 

Freedom  to  worship  God. 

MkS,    Hi  ma-< 


1G0  OUTLINES    IN    HISTORY. 


THE  STAR-SPANGLED  BANNER. 

Oh,  say,  can  you  see,  by  the  dawn's  earlv  light, 

What  so  proudly  we  hailed  at  the  twilight's  last  gleaming, 

Whose  broad  stripes  and  bright  stars  through  the  perilous  fight, 
O'er  the  ramparts  we  watched,  were  so  gallantly  streaming? 

And  the  rockets'  red  glare,  the  bombs  bursting  in  air, 

Gave  proof  through  the  night  that  our  flag  was  still  there. 

Chorus. 

Oh,  say  does  that  star-spangled  banner  yet  wave 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave? 

On  the  shore  dimly  seen  through  the  mists  of  the  deep, 
Where  the  foe's  haughty  host  in  dread  silence  reposes, 

What  is  that  which  the  breeze,  o'er  the  towering  steep, 
As  it  fitfully  blows,  half  conceals,  half  discloses? 

Now  it  catches  the  gleam  of  the  morning's  first  beam, 

In  full  glory  reflected,  now  shines  on  the  stream. 

Chorus. 

5T  is  the  star-spangled  banner :  oh,  long  may  it  wave 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave. 

Oh,  thus  be  it  ever,  when  freemen  shall  stand 

Between  their  loved  home  and  wild  war's  desolation; 

Blest  with  victory  and  peace,  may  the  heaven-rescued  land 
Praise  the  Power  that  hath  made  and  preserved  us  a  nation! 

Then  conquer  we  must,  when  our  cause  it  is  just, 

And  this  be  our  motto :  "  In  God  is  our  trust !  " 

Chorus. 
And  the  star-spangled  banner  in  triumph  shall  wave 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave. 

Francis  Scott  Key. 


OUTUNES    IN    HISTOB     . 


COLUMBIA,  THE  GEM  OF  THE  OCEAN. 

O  Columbia!  the  gem  of  the  ocean, 

The  home  of  the  brave  and  the  tree, 
The  shrine  of  each  patriot's  devotion, 

A  world  offers  homage  to  thee. 
Thy  mandates  make  heroes  assemble, 

When  Liberty's  form  stands  in  view: 
Thy  banners  make  tyranny  tremble, 

When  borne  by  the  red.  white,  and  blue, 

When  borne  by  the  red,  white,  and  blue, 

When  borne  by  the  red,  white,  and  blue, 
Thy  banners  make  tyranny  tremble 

When  borne  by  the  red,  white,  and  blue. 

When  war  winged  its  wide  desolation, 

And  threatened  the  land  to  deform, 
The  ark  then  of  freedom's  foundation, 

Columbia,  rode  safe  through  the  storm ; 
With  garlands  of  vict'ry  around  her, 

When  so  proudly  -lie  bore  her  brave  crew, 
With  her  nag  proudly  floating  Let. -re  her, 

The  boast  of  the  red,  white,  and  blue, 

The  boast  of  the  red,  white,  and  blue. 

The  boast  of  the  red.  white,  and  blue. 
With  her  flag  proudly  floating  before  her, 

The  boast  of  the  red,  while,  and  blue. 

The  star-spangled  banner  bring  hither, 
O'er  Columbia's  true  sons  let  it  wave; 

May  the  wreaths  they  have  won  never  wither, 
Nor  its  stars  cease  to  shine  ^i  the  brave, 


102  OUTLINES    EN"    HISTORY. 

May  the  service  united  ne'er  sever, 
But  hold  to  their  colors  so  true; 

The  army  and  navy  forever, 

Three  cheers  for  the  red,  white,  and  blue, 
Three  cheers  for  the  red,  white,  and  blue, 
Three  cheers  for  the  red,  white,  and  blue, 

The  army  and  navy  forever, 

Three  cheers  for  the  red,  white,  and  blue. 

David  T.  Shaw. 


HURRAH  FOR  THE  FLAG. 

There  are  many  flags  in  many  lands, 

There  are  flags  of  every  hue ; 
But  there  is  no  flag,  however  grand, 

Like  our  own  "  Red,  White,  and  Blue." 

Then  hurrah  for  the  flag!  our  country's  flag! 

Its  stripes  and  white  stars,  too ; 
For  there  is  no  flag  in  any  land, 

Like  our  own  "  Red,  White,  and  Blue." 

I  know  where  the  prettiest  colors  are, 

And  I  'm  sure  if  I  only  knew 
How  to  get  them  here,  I  could  make  a  flag 

Of  glorious  "  Red,  White,  and  Blue." 

I  would  cut  a  piece  from  the  evening  sky, 
Where  the  stars  were  shining  through, 

And  use  it  just  as  it  was  on  high, 
For  my  stars  and  field  of  blue. 

Then  I  'd  want  a  part  of  a  fleecy  cloud, 
And  some  red  from  a  rainbow  bright: 

And  put  them  together,  side  by  side, 
For  my  stripes  of  red  and  white. 


OUTLINES    IN    JIlSToKY.  163 

We  shall  always  love  the  stars  and  stripe 

And  Ave  mean  to  be  ever  true 
To  this  land  of  ours,  and  the  dear  old  flag, 
The  Red,  the  White,  and  Line 


THE  BELL  OF  LIBERTY. 

There  was  tumult  in  the  city, 

In  the  quaint  old  Quaker  town, 
And  the  streets  were  rife  with  people 

Pacing  restless  up  and  down ; 
People  gathering  at  corners, 

Where  they  whispered  each  to  each, 
And  the  sweat  stood  on  their  temples, 

With  the  earnestness  of  speech. 

As  the  bleak  Atlantic  currents 

Lash  the  wild  Newfoundland  shore, 
So  thev  beat  against  the  State  House, 

So  they  surged  against  the  door, 
And  the  mingling  of  their  voices 

Made  a  harmony  profound. 
Till  the  quiet  street  of  Chestnut 

Was  all  turbulent  with  sound. 

"Will  thev  do  it?"     "Dare  they  do  it?" 

"Who  is  speaking?"    "What's  the  Dews  .  " 
"What  of  Adams?"     "  What  of  Sherman?" 

"Oh!  God  grant  thev  won't  refuse.'1 
"Make  some  way  there!1'      u  Le1  me  nearer!" 

"I  am  stifling!"     u  Stifle,  then  J 
When  a  nation's  life  's  at  hazard, 

We've  no  time  to  think  of  men." 


164  OUTLINES    IX    HISTOKY. 

So  they  beat  against  the  portal, 

Man  and  woman,  maid  and  child; 
And  the  July  sun  in  heaven 

On  the  scene  looked  down  and  smiled. 
The  same  sun  that  saw  the  Spartan 

Shed  his  patriot  blood  in  vain, 
Now  beheld  the  soul  of  freedom, 

All  unconquered,  rise  again. 

See !     See !     The  dense  crowd  quivers 

Through  all  of  its  length v  line, 
As  the  boy  beside  the  portal 

Looks  forth  to  give  the  sign ; 
With  his  little  hands  uplifted, 

Breezes  dallving  with  his  hah*, 
Hark !  with  deep,  clear  intonation, 

Breaks  his  young  voice  on  the  air. 

Hushed  the  people's  swelling  murmur, 

List  the  boy's  exulting  cry ! 
•'Ring  !  "  lie  shouts ;  "  Ring  !  grandpa, 

Ring !  Oh,  ring  for  Liberty !  " 
Quickly  at  the  given  signal 

The  old  bellman  lifts  his  hand, 
Forth  he  sends  the  good  news,  making 

Iron  music  through  the  land. 


o 


Ilow  they  shouted  !     What  rejoicing ! 

How  the  old  bell  shook  the  air, 
Till  the  clang  of  freedom  ruffled 

The  calmly  gliding  Delaware. 
How  the  bonfires  and  the  torches 

Lighted  up  the  night's  repose, 
And  from  flames,  like  fabled  Phoenix, 

Our  glorious  Liberty  arose! 


OUTLINES    IH    BISTOBY. 

That  old  State  House  bell  is  silent, 

IIushM.  is  now  its  clamorous  tongues 
But  the  spirit  it  awaken'd 

Still  is  living  —  ever  young; 
And  when  we  greet  the  Bmiling  sunlight, 

On  the  fourth  of  each  July, 
We  will  ne'er  forget  the  hellman, 

Who,  betwixt  the  earth  and  sky, 
Rang  out,  loudly,  "Independence," 

Which,  please  God,  shall  never  die. 


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